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Journal of Plant Protection
  • College of Agriculture, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran.
  • jpp1@um.ac.ir
  • Journal of plant protection is publishing 4 numbers per year. The goal of publishing is enhancing the scientific know... moreedit
Introduction The dust storm has become a regional phenomenon due to occurrence of severe droughts. Dust storms, recognized as significant atmospheric phenomena and associated with climate change, exert detrimental effects on plant growth... more
Introduction
The dust storm has become a regional phenomenon due to occurrence of severe droughts. Dust storms, recognized as significant atmospheric phenomena and associated with climate change, exert detrimental effects on plant growth and crop yield. This study aimed to assess the impact of soil dust on the competition between mung bean and red-root pigweed.

Materials and Methods
An experiment was carried out at the research greenhouse of Faculty of Agriculture at Ilam University during spring and summer 2022. The experiment was conducted as a factorial based on a completely randomized design with four replications. The experimental treatments were included five replacement ratios of mung bean and redroot pigweed (planting patterns 75% mung bean + 25% pigweed; 50% mung bean + 50% pigweed; 25% mung bean + 75% pigweed; monoculture of mung bean and redroot pigweed) and dust were at two levels (0 and 60 gr m-3).

Results and Discussion
The results showed that the dust causes symptoms of necrosis and leaf burn in mung bean and pigweed. The highest amount of carotenoids (3.59 mg g-1 fresh weight of leaf) was observed in the planting pattern of 75% mung bean + 25% pigweed under no dust conditions. The monoculture of pigweed under dust conditions had the lowest amount of carotenoids. Dust reduced the amount of total chlorophyll, leaf relative water content, plant height and length of inflorescence in Pigweed plant by 23.4, 12, 14.7 and 12%, respectively. Dust caused a decrease in the leaf area in pigweed in different patterns of intercropping. Photosynthesis rate, transpiration rate, leaf area, plant height, number of pods per plant and number of seed per plant in mung bean were respectively decreased by 31.2, 24.9, 28.8, 17.7, 29.7 and 36.7% due to dust application. The highest photosynthesis rate in mungbean (5.28 µmol of CO2 m-2 s-1), leaf area (129.1 cm2) and the number of seeds per plant (13 seed plant-1) were obtained from monoculture of mungbean. However, they were decreased under competition with pigweed. The biological yield in mungbean and pigweed under dust condition were, respectively, 42.6 and 16.8 % lower than that of no dust condition. Under dust conditions, the grain yield of mung bean and pigweed were, respectively, 32.8% and 42.6% lower than that of no dust condition. The actual yield of mung bean under competition with pigweed was lower than the predicted yield indicating the higher competitive effects of pigweed. In all planting patterns with and without dust, the total actual yields were higher than the predicted yield indicating a negative interference effects for mung bean. The relative total yield in most of the planting patterns was greater than one, suggesting increase in the partial relative yield and reduction of intra-species competition in pigweed. The negative effects of pigweed on mungbean were more visible in high densities of pigweed, which also showed a higher positive dominance index. The competition index showed a value greater than one for the pigweed indicating the greater competitive ability of this weed compared to mung bean. Under both conditions, with and without dust, pigweed exhibited the highest relative density coefficient in all planting patterns, establishing itself as the dominant plant compared to mung bean, which had a relative density coefficient less than one. The competition index for mung bean, across all intercropping patterns, was also less than one, indicating its lower competitive ability compared to pigweed. Interspecific competition with pigweed resulted in an actual yield loss for mung bean, highlighting that interspecific competition in mung bean surpasses intraspecific competition. Conversely, pigweed showed a greater susceptibility to intraspecific competition.

Conclusion
The results showed that pigweed has a higher competitive ability and by increased exploitation of environmental resources, cause a decrease in mung bean yield. Despite the high competition ability of pigweed, soil dust cause reduction in its growth and biomass.
Introduction Diclofop-methyl is labeled for use in wheat and barley to control many grassy species, e.g., the genus Avena. Efforts should be made to use diclofop-methyl correctly, allowing the reduced doses to be applied. The response of... more
Introduction
Diclofop-methyl is labeled for use in wheat and barley to control many grassy species, e.g., the genus Avena. Efforts should be made to use diclofop-methyl correctly, allowing the reduced doses to be applied. The response of herbicides to spray volume is different. After determining a suitable spray volume for a foliage-applied herbicide, the next step is to adjust it. The spray volume can be adjusted by two methods: the change in application speed or nozzle size. If less spray volume is necessary to apply an herbicide, it is needed to increase application speed. It causes the spray droplets to be more bounced or shattered from the leaf surface, causing the herbicide not to achieve optimal efficacy. Therefore, selecting a smaller orifice nozzle is much more applicable, of course, if the spray drift is controlled. The surface tension of water, which is used to spray herbicides, can be slightly reduced after adding the formulation of herbicides. Therefore, the relatively high surface tension of the spray solution poses three main problems. First, the spray droplets can easily be bounced off the leaf surface. Second, those remaining on the leaf surface after impact have a relatively spherical shape. Third, the crystalline wax in the cuticles, is considered an essential barrier to penetrating herbicides into the leaf tissues. It is well-established that the three main issues mentioned above can be addressed by selecting a suitable surfactant to add to the spray solution. This addition enables optimal efficacy of the herbicide. Consequently, numerous previous studies have highlighted the superiority of trisiloxane surfactants over non-silicone surfactants in enhancing herbicidal activity. This study aims to assess whether the effect of spray volume, adjusted by changing nozzle size, on the herbicidal activity of diclofop-methyl could be influenced by two types of trisiloxane surfactants – one with super wetting properties and the other with non-super wetting properties.

Materials and Methods
A greenhouse trial was performed as a dose-response relationship at the Bu-Ali Sina University, Hamedan, Iran. The experiment was designed as a four-factor completely randomized design. The first factor was the dose of diclofop-methyl (Illoxan® EC 36%) including 0, 112.5, 225, 450, 900 (labeled dose), and 1350 g ha-1. The second factor was spray volume, including 60, 120, 240, and 480 L ha-1, which were adjusted using 1100075, 110015, 11003, and 11006 flat fan nozzle, respectively. The third factor was two types of trisiloxane surfactants, Break-Thru® S 233 having a non-super wetting property and Break-Thru® S 240 having a super wetting property. Both are non-ionic surfactants and manufactured by Evonik company in Germany. They formed their critical micelle concentration (CMC) at 0.1% v v-1 at which the surface tension of distilled water (72.1 mN m-1) containing Break-Thru® S 233 and Break-Thru® S 240 was measured to be 24.1 and 22.6 mN m-1, respectively. The fourth factor was surfactant concentration, including 0, 0.0125, 0.025, 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.4, and 0.8% v v-1 (a range from ⅛ to 8 CMC, respectively). A compressor sprayer was used to apply the treatments at 300 kPa spray pressure. A nonlinear regression analysis was conducted to analyze the ‘drc’ using the software R.

Results and Discussion
A 40% increase in the ED50 value occurred with increasing the spray volumes from 60 to 480 L ha-1 (536.4 and 865.1 g ha-1, respectively), indicating a negative relationship between diclofop-methyl activity and spray volume. Adding Break-Thru® S 233 at 0.025% v v-1 to 60, 120, 240, and 480 L ha-1 spray volumes caused a 1.16, 3.31, 2.04, and 2.13-fold decrease in the ED50 value compared with no surfactant at their corresponding spray volumes, respectively. While, adding Break-Thru® S 240 at 0.025% v v-1 to 60, 120, 240, and 480 L ha-1 spray volumes caused a 1.39, 1.32, 1.34, and 1.19-fold decrease in the ED50 value compared with no surfactant at their corresponding spray volumes, respectively. A decrease in the ED50, attributed to the addition of surfactants, signifies an enhanced activity of diclofop-methyl against sterile oat. This improvement may stem from a reduction in the surface tension of the spray solution, resulting in an expanded retention and/or spreading area of the spray droplets on the leaf surface. This, in turn, facilitates increased penetration of the herbicide into the leaf tissue. These findings indicate that Break-Thru® S 233 works better when added at low concentration to a low-volume spray solution, while Break-Thru® S 240 works better when added at high concentration to a low-volume spray solution. It can be attributed to the difference in the wetting property of surfactants. The natural relationship between diclofop-methyl activity and spray volume at higher concentrations of Break-Thru® S 233 may be related to its phytotoxic effect, resulting in an antagonism effect on diclofop-methyl activity against sterile oat. In the case of Break-Thru® S 240, the relationship mode between diclofop-methyl activity and spray volume was not affected by surfactant concentration indicating the lack of phytotoxic effect by this surfactant.

Conclusion
The current study revealed a negative relationship between diclofop-methyl efficacy and spray volume, which was adjusted by nozzle size. Although this finding differs from a previous study in which spray volume has been adjusted by application speed, they showed that the effect of spray volume on the herbicide’s efficacy depends not only on herbicide but also on how it is adjusted. The smaller, more concentrated spray droplets are necessary to get a better action of diclofop-methyl against sterile oat. However, the negative relationship observed between diclofop-methyl efficacy and spray volume could also be observed with two types of trisiloxane when they surfactants, were used at 0.0125 to 0.1 v v-1. While, when they were used at 0.2 to 0.8% v v-1, the relationship mode changed from negative to neutral for Break-Thru® S 233, but it did not change for Break-Thru® S 240. Moreover, Break-Thru® S 240 works better when added at high concentration to a low-volume spray solution due to the danger of spray run-off, while Break-Thru® S 233 works better when added at low concentration to a low-volume spray solution due to its phytotoxic effect.
Introduction Peppermint (Mentha piperita) is considered as one of the oldest medicinal plants. It is herbaceous and perennial belonging to the Lamiaceae family. The production of secondary metabolites in plants is influenced by the... more
Introduction
Peppermint (Mentha piperita) is considered as one of the oldest medicinal plants. It is herbaceous and perennial belonging to the Lamiaceae family. The production of secondary metabolites in plants is influenced by the environment. Weed competition is of the most effective factors affecting crop yield in medicinal plant production systems, and can influence the quantity and quality of the essence constituents. The extent of crop yield loss depends on presence and competition duration of weeds. A period during the crop growing season in which weeds control is essential to prevent yield loss is called the critical period of weeds control. Respect to the importance of weed presence duration in yield loss, and the variability for critical period of weeds control depending on crop species and cultivar, and characteristics of weeds communities in different areas, and also because of increased interest in medicinal plants production and extraction, and limitation for herbicide application in medicinal plants, it is essential to understand different aspects of weed- peppermint competition. Therefore, the objective of this research was to acquire information about the effects of weed competition duration on peppermint growth and yield, which possibly can lead to integrate various approaches into weed management programs, and improve weed control strategies.

Materials and Methods
This study was conducted as a randomized complete block design with 12 treatments and three replications at research farm of the University of Guilan. Treatments were arranged in two series including weed-free and weed-infested treatments which respectively hand-weeded and un-weeded from the beginning of the growing season up to 16, 32, 48, 64, 80, and 96 days after crop planting. Peppermint cuttings with 6-8 cm height were hand-planted on 50-cm apart rows with 20 cm spacing between plants (density of 10 plants.m-2) on early May. Peppermint plants were hand-harvested 96 days after planting when 50% flowering occurred at the full-season weed-free plot.

Results and Discussion
Dominant weed species included barnyard-grass (Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) Beauv.), yellow foxtail (Setaria glauca (L.) Beauv.), annual nutsedge (Cyperus difformis L.), crab-grass (Digitaria sanguinalis (L.) Scop), knotgrass (Paspalum distichum L.), common cocklebur (Xanthium strumarium L.), spurge (Euphorbia indica Lam.) and redroot pigweed (Amaranthus retroflexus L.). Maximum height of peppermint (71.2 cm) was observed in treatments with at least 32 weed-free and at most 32 weed-infested days from the beginning of the growing season. In the other treatments, final height of peppermint plants reduced by 9.1%. Nod number per stem (22 nodes) was not influenced by weed control or interference. The maximum branch number per plant (37.1) was observed in treatments with at least 32 weed-free and at most 48 weed-infested days. The minimum branch number per plant was observed in the full-season weed-infested treatment (14.6) and also in the treatment that hand weeded just 16 days from the beginning of the growing season (17.6). The maximum dry weight of peppermint at harvest (193.62 g.m-2) was observed in treatments with at least 48 weed-free and at most 32 weed-infested days. The minimum dry weight of peppermint was 30.06 g.m-2 and belonged to the treatments including at least 64 weed-infested days, and also to the treatment was weed-infested from 16 days after planting up to the end of the growth seaso. Biological yield of peppermint in full-season weed-free treatment was 2044 kg.ha-1. For control treatments, weedy condition during 16, 32, 48, 64, and 80 days led to a biological yield loss of 0.3, 3.2, 7.8, 27.9, and 87.2%, respectively, whereas for infested treatments, weedy condition during 16, 32, 48, 64, and 80 days caused 4.8, 15.6, 41.5, 75.1, and 87.7% biological yield loss, respectively. Also 91.3% reduction was recorded for biological yield of full-season un-weeded treatment. The highest percentage and yield of peppermint essence were observed in treatments of 64, 80, and 96-day weed-free (3.38% and 68.30 kg.ha-1). The least essence percentage was 0.48% and was recorded for 96-day (full-season) weed-infested treatment. The least essence yield was belonged to 96, 80 and 64-day weed-infested, and 16-day weed-free treatments (4.4 kg.ha-1).

Conclusion
In general, the growth and yield of peppermint diminished with decreasing weed-free duration and increasing weed-infested duration. Full-season weed competition compared to the full-season weed-free control, reduced height, branch number, biological yield, essence percentage, and essence yield of peppermint by 13.5, 61.1, 91.3, 86.3, and 98.8%, respectively. These results support the importance of weed management in peppermint, as weeding was necessary from 22 to 49 days after peppermint planting by accepting up to 5% yield loss, and from 29 to 42 days by accepting up to 10% yield loss.
Introduction In conventional formulations such as emulsifiable concentrates (EC), wettable powders, soluble liquids, etc., complete availability of the active agent is usually considered immediate or rapid following usage. Application... more
Introduction
In conventional formulations such as emulsifiable concentrates (EC), wettable powders, soluble liquids, etc., complete availability of the active agent is usually considered immediate or rapid following usage. Application rates of these formulations of pesticides are greater than the minimum threshold concentration to counter losses from sorption, volatilization, photodecomposition, microbial and chemical degradation, and leaching. Controlled-release technology for pesticides could reduce environmental damage and increase efficiency by enhancement of delivery to the site of action. This survey was conducted to determine the possibility of EPTC and trifluralin efficiency improvement by using microencapsulated formulation (MC) that were first synthesized in Iran.

Materials and Methods
Two separated greenhouse experiments were conducted in Tirtash Research and Education Center (Mazandaran–Iran) in 2014. The experiments were carried out in a factorial arrangement based on a randomized complete block design with three replications. The Microencapsulated formulation of EPTC and trifluralin herbicides were compared with emulsifiable concentrate formulation (Eradicane 82% and Treflan 48%) in 0 (control), 25, 50, 75 and 100 percent of active ingredient (a.i.) (4.92 and 1.2 kg a.i./ha, recommended doses for EPTC and trifluralin, respectively). For this purpose, the soil of pots were infested with the seed of Green foxtail (Setaria viridis) and Redroot pigweed (Amaranthus retroflaxus). The responses of weeds to treatments, specifically seedling number, were analyzed using ANOVA tests, non-linear regression, and fitting to three parameters of Weibull and log-logistic equations. This analysis was based on Akaike's Information Criterion, Residual Standard Error, and Lack-of-Fit Test indices in the R3.4.1 program. The effective dose were determined for 10, 50 and 90 percent of weed control (ED10, ED50 and ED90, respectively). Relative potency index (R) of formulation types were determined by divided ED50 of EC into MC formulations.

Results and Discussion
According to the results of the experiments, the formulation type had a significant effect on the weed numbers. The MC formulations of EPTC increased Green foxtail and Redroot pigweed control efficiencies. The ED10, ED50 and ED90 decreased from 0.72, 2.94 and 7.18 kg a.i.ha-1 in the EC to 0.41, 1.87 and 4.89 kg a.i.ha-1 in the MC formulation for Green foxtail and 1.08, 3.29 and 10.02 kg a.i.ha-1 in the EC to 0.57, 2.36 and 9.67 kg a.i.ha-1 in the MC formulation for Redroot pigweed. The R index of EPTC in Green foxtail and Redroot pigweed control were 1.57 and 1.39, respectively. Weed control increased as trifluralin dosage increased in both of the formulation types, although in higher doses of the MC, weed control efficiency increased more than the EC formulation. So the efficiency of the MC formulations depended on application dosages. The ED10, ED50 and ED90 of Green foxtail were 0.14, 0.55 and 1.27 kg a.i.ha-1 in the EC and 0.19, 0.52 and 0.98 kg a.i.ha-1 in the MC formulation. The ED10, ED50 and ED90 of Redroot pigweed were 0.20, 0.64 and 2.02 kg a.i.ha-1 in the EC and 0.26, 0.56 and 1.19 kg a.i.ha-1 in the MC formulation. So that the R index of trifluralin in Green foxtail and Redroot pigweed control were 1.05 and 1.14, respectively. The dependency of trifluralin behavior to applied microcapsule dose may be connected to capture of herbicide in microcapsule particles which it causes reduction of bioavailability of herbicide in soil lower than the threshold doses of injury level. Whiles under this experimental conditions, the herbicides are less affected by degrading agents and therefore have less opportunity to express the advantages of MC formulation. Whereas the field studies results showed that the 50% of the recommended dosage of MC formulation had same efficiency as 75% of the recommended dosage of EC formulations (results were not published).

Conclusion
Microencapsulation is a versatile tool for product design and is successfully used in various sectors and for a variety of different product features. However, although lot of research has been performed, only relatively few developments have made it into products in the agrochemical area. For example 37 actives out of 908 listed in total in the pesticide manual, mainly insecticides, are described as being formulated as control solutions. While the development of this technology in agriculture can play an important role in preserving the environment and reducing the pollution caused by pesticides. The purpose of the application of controlled release formulations is the gradual release of herbicides in a suitable amount with maintaining efficiency in agronomic conditions. This type of formulation is a combination of the herbicide and associated material that releases effective material over a given period due to weed control. The results of this study showed that the R index of EPTC and trifluralin were 1.57 and 1.05 in Green foxtail, and 1.39 and 1.14 in Redroot pigweed control, respectively. So that the microcapsule formulation of EPTC and trifluralin herbicides increased the efficacy and reduced the application dose.
Introduction The jujube, Ziziphus jujuba Mill. is a well-known medicinal plant with various nutritional values and pharmacological properties which grows in South Khorasan province, Iran, as the major producer of jujube in Iran. The... more
Introduction
The jujube, Ziziphus jujuba Mill. is a well-known medicinal plant with various nutritional values and pharmacological properties which grows in South Khorasan province, Iran, as the major producer of jujube in Iran. The jujube lace bug, Monosteira alticarinata Ghauri (Hemiptera: Tingidae) is the second most important pest of jujube trees after the jujube fruit fly, Carpomyia vesuviana Costa (Diptera: Tephritidae) in South Khorasan province. Its occurrence in Iran was reported for the first time in 2012 by Moodi from Birjand in South Khorasan province. Adults of M. alticarinata overwinter on the bark of trees, under fallen leaves and in spring they move to young jujube leaves where they feed and lay eggs on the underside, thus starting infestations. Both M. alticarinata adults and nymphs feed on underside of leaves and produce small chlorotic stippling on the upper leaf surface. Leaf undersides appear specifically black varnish spotted due to lace bug excrement. Their injury reduces photosynthesis and respiration and also causes aesthetically displeasing injured leaves. As a result, foliage becomes bronzed and leaves may drop early. The accumulation of excrements on the leaves, also results in reduction of the gas exchange like other lace bugs. Distribution pattern of an insect population is an important aspect as it represents the interaction between individuals of the species and their habitat. The importance of spatial distribution comes from its central role in ecological theories and its practical role in population sampling theory as well as in the development of rational pest management strategies. For these reasons, a great deal of effort has been invested in characterizing the spatial distribution of insect populations. Spatial dispersion of a population usually follows one of three models: aggregated (or contagious), random (or by chance) or uniform (or regular). To determine the spatial distribution pattern of a given species it is necessary to obtain data on the count of individuals in the ecosystem to be considered. Despite the importance of M. alticarinata in the region, no study has been conducted on the distribution of this pest in jujube plant in Iran. Knowledge of spatial distribution of M. alticarinata is useful for designing, pest management and development of population models and assessment of levels of its damage.

Materials and Methods
To investigate the spatial distribution pattern of different life stages of M. alticarinata, samplings were done weekly of jujube trees in 2020. Jujube leaf was selected as sampling unit and the reliable sample size with maximum relative variation of 20% was obtained 50. The number of egg, nymph and adult was recorded in three heights of jujube trees (1.5, 2, and 3 meters). The spatial distribution pattern of different life stages of lace bug was determined using mean-variance ratio, Lloyd's mean crowding index, Taylor´s power low and Iwao´s patchiness regression model.

Results and Discussion
Spatial distribution of an insect is affected by various environmental factors such as food, temperature, light, habitat condition, and other biotic and abiotic factors. The results of the study indicated an aggregated pattern for the spatial distribution of M. alticarinata in almost all heights of jujube. In other words, different heights of jujube did not have any marked effect on the distribution pattern of this pest. Information on spatial distribution of M. alticarinata can be used in estimating the number of samples required from an area to reliably estimate pest infestation levels to develop effective management programs. Similar to our results, the change in plant height did not affect the spatial distribution pattern of Agonoscena pistaciae and Diaphorina citri nymphs and in both cases the pattern of distribution was reported to be aggregated. Aggregated distribution is the most common pattern of spatial distribution in the world of harmful insects which is consistent with the results of this research.

Conclusion
M. alticarinata presented an aggregated spatial distribution in different life stages. The causes of aggregation in these lace bugs might be due to their inherent active aggregative behavioral response such as in a situation where the presence of one individual attracts the others, perhaps for the purpose of feeding and reproduction. Knowledge of the spatial distribution of this pest can be useful in designation of suitable sampling programs and it makes us estimate the density of this pest faster with low cost.
Introduction The striped bug, Graphosoma lineatum L. is one of the pests of Apiaceae family such as parsley, carrot, celery and some medicinally important plants. The adults and nymphs of this insect feed on seeds of host plants. The eggs... more
Introduction
The striped bug, Graphosoma lineatum L. is one of the pests of Apiaceae family such as parsley, carrot, celery and some medicinally important plants. The adults and nymphs of this insect feed on seeds of host plants. The eggs of the striped bug have an important role in mass rearing program of some parasitoids. Nutritional supplements undertake an essential function in mass rearing of insects and increase the efficiency of production. Vitamins such as B group have different functions in physiology of insects. The growth and development of insects hinge on acquiring essential nutrients through food materials. Apart from their primary food source, insects rely on essential amino acids and certain minerals for proper nutrition. These crucial components must be obtained from their food sources. Symptoms of nutritional deficiency, as reported in various research studies, include delayed growth, weight loss, prolonged immature stages, increased mortality, wing deformities, alterations in mating behaviors, and various physiological issues. In this study the effects of some vitamins and amino acids on anatomy of salivary glands, total protein of body, developmental time and fecundity of G. lineatum were evaluated in controlled conditions.

Material and Methods
Insects reared on parsley seeds adhered on the inner side of big plastic containers in controlled condition. Supplements including vitamins B12, B6, B1 and Serine and Phenylalanine amino acids selected for evaluation. These supplements used for the treatmnet of G. lineatum in four different concentrations dissolved in water. For evaluating the effects of nutritional supplements on anatomy of salivary glands, both glands separate after dissection of adult’s thorax, and dimension of glands including width and length of posterior and anterior lobs, measured by micrometer apparatus located on stereomicroscope. Total body protein measured by Kjeldahl apparatus after well drying the total body of insects in oven followed by fine powder of dry materials. Total protein was determined using a standard method, calculated by multiplying the nitrogen amounts by 6.38, a constant value. In distinct experiments, the impact of nutritional supplements on the duration of each nymphal stage was investigated. One-day-old eggs were employed for this purpose. Following treatment justification, the time required for the development of each instar was recorded on a daily basis. All tests were replicated three times, with distilled water used for the control treatment. The data were analyzed by One-way ANOVA experimental randomized design and Duncan’s multiple range test using SAS software used for comparing the means.

Results and Discussion
The results disclosed a significant impact of all vitamins and amino acids on all studied parameters. Notably, in the case of salivary glands, the posterior lobe exhibited a more pronounced effect in insects fed with B1, B6, and Phenylalanine. Different concentrations of vitamin B6, B1 and Phenylalanine affected total protein content of male and female insect’s body. Vitamin B12 had non-significant effect on male and female total body protein. Nutritional supplements changed the rate of laid and hatched eggs in addition with nymph’s developmental time. Vitamin B12 in the concentration of 0.005 g/l, B6 in the concentration of 0.25 g/l, B1 in the concentration of 0.5 g/l, Serine and Phenylalanine both in the concentration of 0.5 g/l showed the highest rate of laid and hatched eggs. Vitamin B6 and B1 in the concentration of 1 and 1.5 g/l resulted in prolonging the nymph’s life span in comparing with controls. The negative effects of high concentrations of nutritional supplements on fecundity and normal developmental period of nymphs well documented in this study. Metabolism, cell division, hormone synthesis, enzymes activity and many physiological parameters affects by supplements especially vitamins. Any disorder in utilization, absorption and inhibition of their function leads to biological and behavioral problems in insects. In some cases, the function of symbionts for compensation essential supplements documented.   

Conclusion
The results of this study indicate important function of vitamins B12, B6 and B1 on G. lineatum nymphal developmental period. In high concentrations, rate of growth decreased in comparison with controls. Salivary glands anatomy showed some changes in dimensions especially in posterior lobs in dose-depending manner. Number of eggs laid and hatched decreased especially in high concentrations of nutritional supplements. The results of this study will help to justify better meridic diet for rearing striped bug. In semi-artificial diets for rearing this insect, corporation of little concentrations (optimum) will improve the fitness of insects.
Introduction Citrus tristeza virus (CTV) is one of the most devastating citrus diseases in Iran. The CTV genome is a positive single-stranded RNA molecule with a size of 19.3 kb containing 12 open reading frames (ORFs). CTV encodes two... more
Introduction
Citrus tristeza virus (CTV) is one of the most devastating citrus diseases in Iran. The CTV genome is a positive single-stranded RNA molecule with a size of 19.3 kb containing 12 open reading frames (ORFs). CTV encodes two different coat proteins, of which the small coat protein (CPm) covers only the 3' end of the genome. CTV infected trees show symptoms such as stunting, yellows, reduced vigor and death. In addition, CTV generates three typical disease syndromes, including quick decline, stem pitting and seedling yellows. In total, more than 259 thousand hectares of citrus are grown in the north and south of Iran. Considering the lack of the complete genome sequence of Iranian CTV isolates and the different climatic conditions in citrus cultivation in the north and south of Iran, the genome of CTV isolates from Iran was determined for the first time and their phylogenetic relationships with other CTV isolates were studied.

Materials and Methods
In spring and fall 2015, 30 samples from Mazandaran province in northern Iran and 25 samples from Fars province in southern Iran were collected from trees suspected of being infected with CTVs. Total RNA was extracted using the RNX-Plus kit according to the manufacturer's instructions. CTV was identified using the specific primer pair CPF (5AAAGAAGGCGACGATGTTGT3) and CPR (5AGCTCCGGTCCAAGAAATCTG3) designed based on the coat protein gene of CTV. Reverse transcription was performed using MMuLV reverse transcriptase (Pars Tuos, Iran) and PCR reaction was performed using Amplicon 2x PCR Master Mix (Amplicon, Denmark). Infected samples were grafted onto sour orange seedlings. sRNAs were extracted using a protocol developed by Carra et al. (2006), and sRNA libraries were prepared according to the CATS protocol (Turchinovich et al., 2014). One microgram of each library was sequenced on the Illumina HiSeq2500 platform from Macrogen, South Korea. The CTV strains were determined by virtual replication and digestion or alignment of the region between the small coat protein (Cpm) and coat protein (Cp) genes. The phylogenetic tree was constructed by the maximum likelihood method using the T92+I nucleotide substitution model with 500 bootstrap repeats by MEGA7. The nucleotide and amino acid similarity matrix was calculated using SDTv.1.2 software. Potential recombination events in the genome were determined using RDP v.5.5.


Results and Discussion
CTV infection was detected in 17 samples from Mazandaran province (56% of samples) and in 8 samples from Fars province (33% of samples) using a CPF/R-specific primer pair. CTV symptoms were mild to severe stunting, chlorosis, yellowing, vein yellowing, and severe decline in the citrus samples from the north of Iran, while CTV symptoms in the samples from the south of Iran were stunting, chlorosis, dieback and quick decline. Three months post inoculation, symptoms of severe stunting and chlorosis appeared in seedlings inoculated with isolates from the north, while mild stunting and yellowing appeared in seedlings of sour orange inoculated with CTV isolates from the south. By assembling the contigs obtained from the RNA-seq data, the complete genomes of IR-North1, IR-North2, IR-South1, and IR-South2 isolates were reconstructed with lengths of 19296, 19302, 19252, and 19251 nucleotides, respectively. The Iranian CTV isolates had nucleotide similarity in the range of 95.2-77.5% with other CTV isolates deposited in GenBank. The polymerase, P65, and coat protein genes of the Iranian CTV isolates showed identity at the amino acid level of 80.6-94.1%, 88-93.9%, and 92.4-96.4%, respectively, with other CTV isolates. Analysis of the CTV strains revealed that IR-North1 resembles the severe decline strain belonging to genotypic group T36, while IR-South2, IR-North2, and IR-South1 belong to the stem pitting and seedling yellows strains of genotypic group VT/T3 and are similar to strains T3, SY, and T318A, respectively. In the phylogenetic tree based on the full length of the CTV genome, three subclades were designated: VT, T68, and T36. IR-North2, IR-South1, and IR-South2 isolates were grouped into VT, and IR-North1 isolate was grouped into T36. Like the reference CTV isolate, the four Iranian CTV isolates had 12 open reading frames. Examination of the Replicase, RdRp, P65, P61, CPm, and CP proteins revealed 280 amino acid substitutions in 33 conserved motifs in Iranian CTV isolates. The isolate IR-North1 had only five substitutions; however, 97, 85, and 93 substitutions occurred in the isolates IR-North2, IR-South1, and IR-South2, respectively. Most substitutions were found in the replicase and p61 proteins, which are involved in virus replication and assembly, respectively. RdRp and p23 proteins had the least amino acid substitutions. No known conserved motif was observed in P33, P6, P18, P13, and P20 proteins. In addition, IR-North1, IR-North2, and IR-South1 were recombinant. In IR-North1, 1426 nucleotides in the P65 gene and 773 and 2444 nucleotides in the replicase gene were recombinant in IR-North2 and IR-South1 isolates, respectively.

Conclusion
An analysis of symptoms, nucleotide diversity, dominant strains, and the phylogenetic relationship of the four Iranian CTV isolates sequenced in this study revealed that two isolates from northern Iran were quick decline and seedling yellows strains, falling within the genotypic groups T36 and VT. These groups were distinguished by distinct symptoms and a separate phylogenetic position. Conversely, the two southern CTV isolates were closely associated with CTV stem pitting strains, classified into genotypic groups VT and T3, sharing a close phylogenetic position.
Introduction Narcissus (Narcissus tazetta) is one of the perennial herbaceous and ornamental bulbous crops that is used as a cut flower garden plant and potted plant. Fungal diseases are one of the harmful factors of this ornamental... more
Introduction
Narcissus (Narcissus tazetta) is one of the perennial herbaceous and ornamental bulbous crops that is used as a cut flower garden plant and potted plant. Fungal diseases are one of the harmful factors of this ornamental plant in different parts of the world. In 2018, symptoms of Narcissus leaf spot (NLS) were observed in some planting areas of this plant in South Khorasan province. This study was carried out to identify the casual and associated fungi with NLS in Southern Khorasan province.

Materials and Methods
Samples with leaf spot symptoms were collected from two regions, Khoosf and Tabas, from 2018 to 2019. Plant tissues were transferred to the laboratory of the Department of Plant Protection in separate paper bags. The tissues were cultured on a Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA) medium and purification was performed on a 2% water-agar medium using the Hyphal tip method. Fungal agents were isolated and identified based on morphological and molecular characteristics.  The DNA of representative fungal isolates was extracted according to the CTAB method. To molecularly confirm the species, part of the rDNA gene was amplified using ITS5 (5'-GGAAGTAAAAGTCGTAACAAGG-3') and ITS4 (5'- TCCTCCGCTTATTGATATGC-3') primers. Sequencing of PCR products was done by Pishgam Biotechnology Company and deposited in the GenBank with Accession number: MN829259. Sequences were edited with Chromas software and the edited sequences were saved in FASTA format. The ITS-based phylogenetic tree was constructed using the Maximum Likelihood Method with MEGA ver6.0 software. For the pathogenicity test, the Narcissus plant was inoculated with mycelia plugs. In order to maintain moisture and establish the fungus, the inoculation area was covered with parafilm.  The plants were covered with polythene bags for 24 hours. The bags were removed after 24 hours. In the control plants, the potato-dextrose-agar culture medium without fungal mycelium was used. All plants were examined after 3 to 14 days and the pathogen was re-isolated from the inoculated plant that showed leaf spot.

Results and Discussion
Symptoms of narcissus leaf spot (NLS) disease in the sampled areas included elongated, elliptical, and red to brown circles on the leaf. A total of 50 samples of different leaf spot symptoms were collected. In this study, 20 fungal strains were isolated and identified based on morphological and molecular characteristics. The growth rate of this isolate on the PDA medium was relatively fast and the average growth rate after 7 days was 6.6 cm. Pycnidia were formed abundantly on the PDA medium after 7 days. The pycnidiospores were transparent, mostly single-celled (3-4×5-7), sometimes two-celled (11.5-15 ×5.8), round to oval and curved. Chlamydospores (8-15) were dark brown, unicellular and multicellular, intercellular and rarely terminal. Based on morphological characteristics, the strains were finally identified as Phoma narcissi.
The NCBI blast search revealed that the ITS region Phoma narcissi in our study had similarities to Didymella curtisii, Phoma narcissi, and Phoma sp. 100%, 100%, and 99% respectively. Phylogenetic analysis confirms that the examined strain belongs in a clade with strains of Ph. narcissi. In Pathogenicity tests, symptoms of the disease were observed on all plants 7 days after inoculation. No symptoms developed on non- inoculated plants. The original pathogen was re-isolated from the leaf spots of inoculated plants. Phoma s.l. is one of the most ubiquitous fungal genera, characterized by its great ecological diversity and difficult identification. According to our knowledge, the main cause of NLS disease in the east of the country is the Ph. Narcissi, Fusarium sp. and Cladosporium sp. were associated agents with this disease. Since the identification of the disease agent is effective in choosing effective and efficient strategies for disease control, the results can help to adopt effective methods in disease management.
Introduction Prediction of weed emergence time is one of the valuable decision-making tools in integrated weed management, which can be used to optimize weed control programs. Among human agricultural practices, tillage is one of the... more
Introduction
Prediction of weed emergence time is one of the valuable decision-making tools in integrated weed management, which can be used to optimize weed control programs. Among human agricultural practices, tillage is one of the main drivers of weed communities. The emergence pattern has sensitive receptors that may change with a manipulation such as tillage or any other management activity. Johnson grass (Sorghum halepense (Pers.) L.) from the Poaceae family is a C4 perennial weed and one of the most invasive weeds in the world. This weed has spread in one third of the world's regions, which has led to a major reduction of biological and agricultural diversity in Asia, Africa, America and Europe. It ranks sixth in the list of 30 worst weeds in the world in 53 countries and has become endemic in millions of hectares of the world. Cutworms have been reported in crops including wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), soybean (Glycine max L.), corn (Zea mays L.), cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.), vegetables and fruit trees.

Materials and Methods
In order to predict the time of emergence of seedlings from seeds and rhizomes, a field experiment was conducted during the spring and summer of 2022 in the research farm located in the Agricultural Campus of Tehran University located in Karaj. The experiment was conducted as a randomized complete block with four replications. The investigated treatments were four tillage dates including 15 May, 30 May, 15 June and 30 June. 20 plots with dimensions of 2 ×1 m2 were prepared in a part of the research farm which has a high level of Johnson grass contamination based on previous monitoring. Tillage is done up to a depth of 20 cm in the plots. In each plot, three quadrates with dimensions of 0.5 × 0.5 m2 were installed, and seed seedlings and rhizomes were counted at weekly intervals until the end of the season. Four models (Logistic, Sigmoidal, Gumpertz and Weibull) were used to investigate the emergence pattern of seedlings obtained from seeds and rhizomes. Analysis of variance was done with the help of SAS 9.1 software. Sigma plot software was used to brush the models.

Results and Discussion
The minimum square standard error model with an explanation coefficient of 0.85 and also the root mean square error of 5.35 has been able to predict the cumulative emergence of the seedlings of Johnson grass seeds. These values were 0.94 and 3.8 respectively in predicting the cumulative emergence of seedlings from the rhizome, which indicates the higher accuracy of the model in predicting the emergence from the rhizome. The results showed that, in general, the used models had close values of the corrected coefficient of explanation and root mean square error, so these indicators were not able to distinguish the more accurate model. But in general, since models with a lower Akaike index are more accurate anyway, the logistic model was chosen as the best model. The effect of plowing was significant on the germination pattern of seed and rhizomes. May plowing dates were associated with a high population of seed and rhizome seedlings, but in the same proportion in the population. Seed seedlings emergent in a smaller number and during a shorter period of the season, while rhizome shoots are observed in a longer period and with a much higher number in the field. In general, the emergence of seed seedlings started earlier, slightly before rhizome seedlings. With the gradual increase in temperature from May 15 to June 30, the response of rhizome seedlings to temperature has been variable among the studied squares. A similar trend regarding the increase of germination variance can be seen in the case of seeds, with the difference that the variance was much higher in the case of seed seedlings. This indicates that the seeds are more sensitive to the increase in temperature and their variable response to environmental changes.

Conclusion
The plowing dates during June were associated with a decrease in the population of seed seedlings and an increase in rhizome seedlings of the Johnson grass population. Considering that the rhizome population in the farm is high at all times, it is suggested to write and implement control programs based on the rhizome population. This point is more important in late tillage and late planting dates.
Introduction Vicia hyrcanica grows in crop fields and field margins, pastures, meadows, orchards, vineyards, uncultivated areas, and other open areas in western parts of Iran. This is an annual, cool-season weed, which can reduce crop... more
Introduction
Vicia hyrcanica grows in crop fields and field margins, pastures, meadows, orchards, vineyards, uncultivated areas, and other open areas in western parts of Iran. This is an annual, cool-season weed, which can reduce crop yield substantially. The population of this weedy species during last yeard has been increased and it is now considered as an invasive weed in the cuktivated areas of west of Iran. Hence, the aim of this study was to determine the diversity, density and dominance of Vicia hyrcanica compared with other weed species infesting wheat and chickpea fields in Kuzaran city in Kermanshah province, Iran. Furthermore, another aim of this experiment was to prepare the map of contaminated areas with V. hyrcanica as well as the endanger fields for being invaded by this weedy species.

Materials and Methods
For conducting this study, a list of important areas for growing wheat, chickpea, rainfed and irrigated in Kuzran city was prepared, then the distribution of this weed was evaluated during growing season of 2020. 300 farms of both irrigated and rainfed wheat and chickpea farms of Kuzaran city, Kermanshah province, Iran were selected for sampling. The selected fields were monitored in such a way as to cover all important areas of wheat and chickpea production areas in Kuzran city. The selection of farms at a distance of approximately 3-5 km before the emergence of wheat spike gradually began in late April from different parts of the city and continued until late May. Sampling time in different parts of the province was from the beginning of stem emergence to the end of wheat clustering. In order to identify seedlings, they were labeled in the field and seedling identification keys were used to identify them. Parameters related to relative abundance, species richness, density and relative uniformity as well as diversity and dominance indices were measured to determine the importance of the mentioned weed species at the farm level. Through using GIS technique, the distribution map of yellow flower vetch in these areas was drawn.

Results
In addition to yellow vetch, another 21 species of geraminae weeds were observed. The highest average species density with 35.2 plants per square meter and the highest relative abundance of 36.3% is related to Vicia hyricanica and two species Tragopogon major and Melilotus officinalis both with 0.27 and 0.26, respectively, had the lowest mean species density and relative abundance. In adition, the most common broadleaf species included Catchweed bedstraw (Galium tricornutum Dandy), yellow vetch (V. hyricanica), wild mustard (Sinapis arvensis L.) and Makhobeli (Cephalaria syriaca (L.) Roemer & Schultes). Uniformity index in irrigated and rainfed wheat fields of Kuzran city of Kermanshah province shows that the differences between species were very close in terms of uniformity and ranged from 0.53 (Sinapis arvensis) to 95% (related to Silybum marianum).

Conclusion
The highest prevalence index was related to species (V. hyrcanica) and all other weed species had a dominance index of less than 100. Based on the results obtained, among the species identified in wheat and chickpea fields of Kuzran city, five species with the highest prevalence of Simpson species were introduced as the species with the highest relative importance. Differences in species diversity and dominance indices were related to the amount and type of management operations on farms. Caspian vetch and Catchweed bedstraw were identified as the main invasive species. The predominance of these weeds, especially the Caspian vetch, as a weed, creates problems for farmers in the production of important crops, such as peas, because these crops are similar to vetch, and they separate it from the seeds of the crop. It is difficult and somewhat impossible by Bojari devices. Therefore, presence of this weed in these fields is critical and their spread should be prevented. In addition to seed contamination, endrils of vetchs allow V. hyrcanica to attach to crop plants, which results in hindering crop harvest and reducing its yield. Finally, totally, these attributes help to increase the infestation area by this weedy species and my explain its invasion status in the region.
Introduction Drought stress is one of the main environmental factors affecting the growth and productivity of plants around the world. Periods of severe drought are predicted to increase significantly in the near future, particularly as a... more
Introduction
Drought stress is one of the main environmental factors affecting the growth and productivity of plants around the world. Periods of severe drought are predicted to increase significantly in the near future, particularly as a result of extreme heat waves. Salinity is also one of the most important challenges facing the food supply for the world's population in the future, and the degree and time of exposure to stress can make this challenge stronger or weaker.
Environmental limitations affecting plant growth, development and performance of physiological processes during plant response to stress provide important information about the plant mechanism, which is useful for eliminating or reducing the harmful effects of stress in plant tissues. The negative effects of climate change (such as drought, sea level rise, and global warming), as well as the salinization of agricultural land, and have been cited as one of the most important problems of the World Agriculture Organization (FAO).
Understanding the relationship between changes in environmental conditions and climate change and Arundo donax with regard to the growth of coastal native species and also understanding the water wastage by this plant compared to coastal native plants is vital to remove this plant in the current situation where there is drought in most areas.
In this situation, it is necessary to know how different environmental factors such as salinity levels, dryness, temperature, nutrients, light and fire affect the growth and invasion of Arundo donax for long-term and large-scale control. The purpose of this research is to obtain valuable information about the growth and development of existing ecotypes of the Arundo donax plant in Iran and the effect of various environmental factors on the germination, growth and fertility of this plant in order to plan for the long-term restoration of river ecosystems and how to control and The fight or its optimal use should be determined.

Materials and Methods
In order to investigate the effect of drought and salinity treatment on the growth and establishment of the rhizome of Arundo donax, an experiment was conducted in 2021 using rhizomes collected from the ecotype of Gorgan city and factorially in the form of a randomized complete block design in 3 replications in the research farm of Ferdowsi University of Mashhad. The experimental treatments included different levels of drought stress {100%, 75% and 50% of crop capacity} and different levels of salinity stress {0 (distilled water), 4, 8 and 12 dS/m}.

Results and Discussion
The general results of the experiment showed that the presence of salinity and drought stresses both decrease the growth and development indicators of this plant, and the presence of these two environmental stresses can increase the indicators of biomass of aerial organs, biomass of underground organs, plant height, and stem diameter. The effect of salinity stress on the reduction of the measured indices was less than that of drought stress, so that the difference between the levels of salinity stress at different levels of drought stress in all the measured indices, except the shoot biomass, had insignificant differences with each other, but in the comparison of the effect of drought stress at different levels of the surface together we come to the conclusion that drought stress alone leads to a significant decrease in growth indicators compared to the control treatment. The maximum amount of shoot biomass in non-stress conditions (control) was 2840 (gr), and with the increase of salinity and drought stress levels, this value decreases, so that the lowest amount of biomass in drought stress and maximum salinity conditions was 988 (gr). The biomass of the shoots of Arundo donax increased over time in different levels of salinity and drought stress, and its value was from less than 300 grams at the beginning of the growing season in all stress levels to more than 1000 to 2500 (gr) at the end of the growing season in different stress levels.

Conclusion
The parameters obtained from the effect of salinity and drought stress on the stem diameter, plant height and leaf surface of Arundo donax showed that this plant showed some resistance under minor drought stress and these indicators decrease less in it, but in severe drought stress this amount decreased sharply. The results of analysis of variance of this experiment also showed that salinity and drought treatment and their interaction led to a significant difference with the control treatment. The simple effect of salinity treatment showed a significant difference in other indices compared to the control treatment, except for the index of leaf area and stem diameter, however, the simple effect of drought treatment showed significance in all the measured indices.
Introduction Tehran, in terms of extent, is the 26th megacity of the world. Tehran’s urban green landscape per capita is 15.5 square meters per person. Weeds annually financially damage green landscapes in Tehran, the cost of weed... more
Introduction
Tehran, in terms of extent, is the 26th megacity of the world. Tehran’s urban green landscape per capita is 15.5 square meters per person. Weeds annually financially damage green landscapes in Tehran, the cost of weed management in a lawn is 1500 rials per square meter. One of the tools and methods that can improve weed management is to map their distribution. These map help researchers. 1- Areas affected by the population of different species. 2- Identify areas of the invasive weed infested areas. So far, the study of community structure and species diversity in weeds in the green space of Mashhad, Khorshid park Mashhad, and grass fields of Shiraz University have been done, but a similar research has not been done in Tehran. A research was conducted in parks of 22 districts of Tehran in order to assess, specify diversity, density, dominance and distribution map of weeds in Tehran.

Materials and Methods
This study was conducted in years 2014-2015 in 48 parks of 22 districts of Tehran. Sampling was conducted in summer using W systematic method. The parks in each area were chosen according to the extent of green area, the location of the park in the twon (whether the park was in the suburbs of Tehran or other parts of the area) and according to the three following scales. In the 5 hectare parks, 10 samples, 6 to 15 hectare parks, 15 samples and in 16 and more than 16 hectare parks 25 samples were taken. In the 5 hectare parks, 25 meters, 6 to 15 hectare parks, 40 meters and in 60 and more than 60 hectare parks 70 meters of margin was considered for each park. Latitude, longitude and altitude were recorded. Weeds of each quadrat were identified and counted according to their species and finally, using Thomas equations (1985), their frequency, uniformity, average aggregation and dominance index were calculated. In order to create distribution map of weeds Arcgis and Arcmap soft-wares were used for determine the distribution of dominant species of weeds and other species in the city of Tehran. Shannon-Wiener and uniformity indexes were calculated for all parks. For comparing and grouping 22 districts, cluster analysis was performed using SPSS software.

Results and Discussion
A total of 52 weed species from 21 families were observed. Maximum weed densities respectively were found in the Region 17 and Region 16 with 34.38 and 36.25 plant/m2. The 28 species of 52 species belonging to four families, Asteraceae,Poaceae, Fabaceae, and Chenopodiaceae, with 10, 7, 6 and 4 species, respectively. Based on a abundance index (AI). Lion′s tooth (Taraxacum officinale), knotweed (Polygonum patulum), greaet plantain (Plantago major), bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon) and Sow thistle (Sonchus oleraceus) were dominant species. Parks in district 2 with 3.30 had maximum diversity in weed community and parks in districts 15, 21, 11, 18, 12, 14, 3 with 2.25, 2.25, 2.25, 2.19, 2.31, 2.33, 2.12, respectively had minimum diversity. Also presence of Beggarticks (Bidens parviflora Willd), garden anchusa (Anchusa italic Retz), garden orache (Atriple hortensisL.), common reed ((Phragmmites austrialis (Cav.) Trinexsteud), ribwort plantain (Plantago lanceoleta L.), nappola minor (Xanthium brasilicum), yellow sweet clover (Mellilotus officnalis L. Desr), common mallow (Malva sylvestrisL.) weeds in some specific areas makes it necessary to control these weeds to stop their reproduction in these specific area and expansion of infected seeds from these areas to other areas of Tehran. Lion′s tooth distribution maps, as the most dominant broad leaf weed showed that the highest plant density above regions 21, 18, 16, 17, 19 and the lowest density in regions 4, 1, 5, 22, 3 there. Bermuda grass distribution maps, as the most dominant weed of slim leaf showed that the highest plant density above regions 2, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 16, 21 and the lowest density in regions 12, 13 there.

Conclusion
Determination of density, type, species and life cycle of weeds in Tehran parks, allows to manage and reduce weeds damages and also by using integrated weed management system it is possible for better management and reduce weeds population and stop spreading of them from one area to another. Also close monitoring and precise management of other parameters such as soil and manure is effective in reducing the population of weeds in all areas.
Introduction Trogoderma granarium (Everts) is an economic insect pest of stored grains in Iran and many tropical and subtropical regions. If stored products contaminated with this insect are consumed by humans, it would cause serious... more
Introduction
Trogoderma granarium (Everts) is an economic insect pest of stored grains in Iran and many tropical and subtropical regions. If stored products contaminated with this insect are consumed by humans, it would cause serious digestive diseases. To control T. granarium in storage, chemical insecticides and fumigants are often used, but due to their extreme toxicity to humans and other dangerous side-effects, their application has been limited. Therefore, in order to develop alternative control methods with minimal harmful effects to humans and other non-target organisms, there is a need to understand feeding performances of the pest on different cultivars. The use of insect-resistant plants is one of the effective methods in integrated pest management programs. Study of nutritional indices of stored product insects is one of the important methods of measuring the resistance in plant cultivars.

Materials and Methods
Nutritional indices of T. granarium larvae were investigated using the gravimetric method provided by Wadbauer (1968). The grains of wheat genotypes including N-91-9, Heidari, Aftab, Tirgan, N-92-19, Gaskojen and Kouhdasht were crushed using a grinder. Then, first instar larvae were reared on the grains of these genotypes under 33 ± 1°C, 65 ± 5% R.H., and 14:10 (L:D) h. After emergence of fifth instar, the weight of larvae, before and after feeding, and the amount of grain eaten by the larvae were measured. The data were analyzed using one-way ANOVA using SPSS ver.16. Then, Tukey's HSD test, with a probability level of 5%, was used to investigate the statistical differences among the means.

Results and Discussion
There were significant differences in the nutritional indices of T. granarium fifth instar larvae on grain of different wheat genotypes. The larvae raised on line N-91-9 had the lowest weight of food consumption (24.33 ± 3.38 mg/10 larvae) compared to other genotypes tested. Larvae fed with line N-91-9 (5.33 ± 0.33 mg/10 larvae) and cultivars Aftab (3.00 ± 0.57 mg/10 larvae) and Heidari (3.00 ± 0.57 mg/10 larvae) showed lower weight gain than those fed with other genotypes. The highest efficiency of conversion of ingested food (ECI) was on cultivars Gascojen (36.56 ± 1.46 %) and Tirgan (33.42 ± 0.60 %), and the lowest was observed on cultivars Aftab (7.32 ± 1.51 %) and Heidari (7.86 ± 1.38 %). The highest relative consumption rate (RCR) was found on cultivar Gascojen (1.08 ± 0.05 mg/mg/day) and line N-92-19 (0.95 ± 0.02 mg/mg/day), and the lowest was seen on line N-91-9 (0.16 ± 0.03 mg/mg/day), and cultivars Heidari (0.19 ± 0.02 mg/mg/day) and Aftab (0.24 ± 0.02 mg/mg/day). As compared with the other examined genotypes, the relative growth rate (RGR) was the highest on cultivar Gascojen (0.394 ± 0.022 mg/mg/day). Larvae feeding from cultivar Gascojen (5.61 ± 0.17 mg/day) had the highest growth rate (GR), and larvae feeding from line N-91-9 (0.76 ± 0.04 mg/day) and cultivars Heidari (0.42 ± 0.08 mg/day) and Aftab (0.42 ± 0.08 mg/day) had the lowest GR value. The change in the nutritional indices of T. granarium larvae can be due to the differences in physical and chemical characteristics of the grains of tested wheat genotypes. The ECI index represents the ability of an insect to use eaten food to increase its body size and weight. In other words, the increase in ECI value on cultivars Gaskojen and Tirgan indicates the high ability of fifth instar larvae to convert the eaten grain into body biomass. This finding may be due to the high protein content and low grain hardness of these cultivars. The decrease in the amount of food eaten and body weight in larvae fed with cultivar Heidari and line N-91-9 may be due to the high grain hardness of these genotypes.

Conclusion
Our results showed that line N-91-9 and cultivars Heidari and Aftab had lower nutritional value than the other tested genotypes for T. granarium larvae, because the amount of food eaten, larval weight gain and nutritional indices of larvae fed with these genotypes were lower than other genotypes tested. So, these genotypes can be used in genetic engineering programs to minimize the damage of T. granarium. The presence of defensive chemical compounds, grain hardness or the lack of essential nutrients for the development of the pest may be the reason why some of the tested genotypes are unsuitable for T. granarium feeding.
Introduction The seeds of common bean plants (Phaseolus vulgaris) are among the most important food sources worldwide. The plant pathogenic fungus Rhizoctonia solani causes seed rot and seedling damping-off of bean plants and is one of... more
Introduction
The seeds of common bean plants (Phaseolus vulgaris) are among the most important food sources worldwide. The plant pathogenic fungus Rhizoctonia solani causes seed rot and seedling damping-off of bean plants and is one of the most important soil-borne pathogens in most cultivation areas of this plant. R. solani plays an important role in reducing the yield and quality of this crop. Biological control is a promising, effective, and sustainable solution for managing soil-borne fungal diseases. The simultaneous use of biological control agents, especially agents with different mechanisms of action, might increase the chance of success in disease management. Indeed, two living agents can show different types of interactions based on their inherent characteristics and ecological conditions. In the current research, the potential of co-application of mycorrhizal fungi and bacterial strains from different taxonomic groups was evaluated on increasing the growth of beans and suppression of bean damping-off.

Materials and Methods
In this research, the effect of 14 different bacterial strains on the mycelial growth of R. solani was investigated by dual culture and by the volatile compound production tests in the laboratory. The list of bacterial strains included: Bacillus megaterium B15, Bacillus thuringiensis B48Pet, Bacillus subtilis BS (B.s), B. subtilis AS, Lysinibacillus boronitolerans RUPB71 (Lysin), Pseudomonas putida RUP1, Arthrobacter citreus B27Pet, Alcaligenes faecalis 1624, Bacillus pumilus INR7, Bacillus thuringiensis 32B (B.thur), Azotobacter vinelandii RUA1 (Azoto), Delftia tsuruhatensis PIIR (Delft), Stenotrophomonas maltophilia S37 and Bacillus velezensis JPS19 (B.vel). In the dual culture test, B.s, B.vel, Alca, Azoto, Lysin, and Delft strains significantly reduced the mycelial growth of the pathogen. In volatile compounds production test, three strains, Alca, Azoto, and B.thur, significantly reduced the mycelial growth of the pathogen. Four bacterial strains, including B.s, B.vel, Alca, and Azoto, were selected for greenhouse experiment. The selected bacterial strains as separate and combined application with two species of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), including Funneliformis mosseae (F.moss) and Glomus claroideum (G.cla) were investigated for inhibiting the disease caused by R. solani, and for their effect on the growth parameters of bean plants in the presence of the pathogen. The greenhouse experiment was conducted as a completely randomized design with 16 treatments and five replications.

Results and Discussion
Many of the greenhouse treatments that were applied in this study, significantly reduced the severity of the disease compared to the diseased control. They significantly increased the fresh and the dry weight of the shoots, root fresh weight and root dry weight. Four treatments (F.moss, B.s, Alca and Azoto) significantly enhanced the root length and four treatments (Alca, B.s, B.vel+G.cla and Alca+G.cla) increased the shoot length. In terms of the effect on the disease, the B.s strain was the best treatment, which reduced the disease severity by 36.5% and showed the greatest effect in promoting the vegetative characteristics of the plant. Although the bacterial and mycorrhizal strains showed compatibility in many combined treatments, G.cla+B.vel was the only double treatment that showed an increasing effect on the fresh weight and shoot length compared to the separate applications. The other double treatments did not have an additive or synergistic effect in reducing the disease and improving plant growth. Even in some double treatments, in terms of reducing disease and improving plant growth, a weaker effect was seen than their single treatments. Among different treatments, Alca+G.cla and Alca+F.moss showed the highest and B.s+G.cla showed the lowest mycorrhizal colonization.

Conclusion
The effect of bacteria on mycorrhizal colonization was increasing, decreasing, or null depending on the combination of bacterial and mycorrhizal strains used. In many cases, there was no direct relationship between the amount of mycorrhizal colonization and disease control. Overall, before the commercial use of the combination of biological agents, it is necessary to check their interactions in greenhouse and field experiments and ensure their compatibility and lack of antagonistic effect on each other. If the biological agents present in a consortium are compatible, its biocontrol effect will be more stable, efficient and reliable, and it will be possible to use it in a wider range of variable soil ecological conditions. Moreover, the interaction of individuals within a given consortium is strain-specific, and the results of an experiment on specific strains cannot be generalized to other strains of the same species.
Introduction One of the most effective ways to preserve biodiversity is to convert conventional systems into organic ones. The organic farming system reduces the negative effects of intensive management. The biomass of the soil ecosystem... more
Introduction
One of the most effective ways to preserve biodiversity is to convert conventional systems into organic ones. The organic farming system reduces the negative effects of intensive management. The biomass of the soil ecosystem has different responses in management methods including tillage, fertilizer and defense inputs, and organic modifiers. Understanding the role and responses of biomass in different cropping systems is essential to support sustainable horticultural practices in managing plant-parasitic nematode.
Materials and Methods
Sampling has been done from two organic farming systems, conventional and pasture, in order to identify the morphology of soil plant parasitic nematodes, soil physicochemical characteristics, and microbial respiration. Plant parasitic nematodes were extracted, killed, fixed, and transferred to glycerin and permanent slides were prepared. The effect of the type of cultivation system on the abundance and diversity of plant parasitic nematodes in common and organic apple and peach orchards compared to pasture were investigated by multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) in Xlastat 2020 software.
Results and Discussion
20 Genera belonging to 11 families of plant-parasitic nematodes were identified, which had different frequencies based on the type of cropping systems and crops. The comparison of the type of organic cultivation system with the common showed that it had a significant effect on the frequency and diversity of plant parasitic nematodes; the highest frequency of the nematode genus in organic peach cultivation system is Gracilacus and the lowest frequency is Scutylenchus genus in common apple cultivation. The abundance of nematode family in organic system is more than common and the abundance of nematode family in peach organic system is more than apple organic system. It should be mentioned that the common apple system is close to pasture in terms of abundance. The abundance of nematode family in the common system of peach is more than the common system of apple. The type of cultivation system had a significant effect on the frequency and diversity of Pratylenchus, Helicotylenchus, Tylenchus, and Rotylenchus genera, while it did not have a significant effect on the  Gracilacus genus. Type of host plant had a significant effect on the frequency and diversity of plant parasitic nematodes definitely in all soil condition variables. The type of host plant was significant on the frequency of all plant nematodes except Tylenchus and a significant effect on the diversity of all except Tylenchus and Rotylenchus. Among all soil factors, microbial respiration, EC, OC, K, P, and texture (percentage of soil particles including sand, silt, and clay) showed a significant effect on all lineages of nematodes.
Conclusions
Significant differences in community structure in plant parasitic nematode communities in three systems were recorded. The results of the present study have shown that the frequency and diversity nematodes are different from the results of other researchers in apple and peach orchards, that plant types and cultivars, basic genotype, or soil management practices affect the composition of plant parasitic nematode community groups. In this study, the abundance and diversity of nematode in the organic system was more than in pasture, and conventional agriculture with more than 10 years of history, including tillage and chemical inputs, and organic matter loss, erosion, and low in the soil agroecosystem. The reduction of the plant parasitic nematode in the conventional system compared to the organic system is caused by the reduction of organic matter, tillage, or chemical inputs. The results showed that the type of product and management practices affect nematode communities. The composition of soil nematode communities is significantly different in organic, conventional, and pasture farming systems. The organic peach and apple system is facing an increase in nematodes more than conventional. It seems that plant parasitic nematodes are sensitive to soil management practices. Soil nematodes are useful indicators to evaluate the intensity of management and sustainable management of horticultural ecosystems on soil ecosystem performance; because they have several feeding habits in soil, and micronutrient networks and play an important role in the food cycle, pest suppression, and regulation of microbial communities. There were high pest pressure of nematodes in the organic peach farming system in comparison to the apple farming system. In this research, apple is better than the peach for organic production in Damavand orchards. In addition, growers consider peaches better than apples due to market and price considerations. With the increase in the demand and price of organic products, the organic system is facing high pest pressure due to fewer management options compared to the conventional system, which requires the development of integrated plant nematode management strategies.
Introduction Rice is one of the most important grains in the world and large part of its consumption is related to Middle East. Iran ranks 23rd in production, 26th in cultivation, and 13th in rice consumption with nearly 560,000-hectare... more
Introduction
Rice is one of the most important grains in the world and large part of its consumption is related to Middle East. Iran ranks 23rd in production, 26th in cultivation, and 13th in rice consumption with nearly 560,000-hectare rice lands and an annual production of nearly 2.5 million tons. In natural and agricultural ecosystems, plants are associated with large populations of microorganisms in the rhizosphere, endosphere (inside the root), leaves (phyllosphere), as well as pollen and seeds. These microorganisms spend all or part of their life cycle inside the healthy tissues of host plant without any obvious sign of disease. The stable coexistence between endophytes and plants is due to production of biological secondary metabolites with a unique structure, which positively affects the survival of plant growth in adverse conditions. Studies have shown that endophytic fungi increase resistance to drought, insects, diseases and host tolerance level, especially in stress conditions. Considering the increase in the risk of dehydration and the lack of sufficient water resources and the development and adoption of aerobic rice cultivation, it is important to identify endophytic fungi that increase tolerance to drought stress and improve the growth factors of the host plant. There are relatively few studies on endophytic fungi that colonize healthy tissues of rice plants under aerobic conditions. Therefore, the aim of this study is to evaluate endophytic fungal collections in different parts of aerobically cultivated rice plants.

Materials and Methods
In this study, in order to identify endophytic fungi in aerobic cultivation of rice in Golestan province, sampling were carried out from several aerobic rice fields in Golestan province, including Gorgan, Kordkuy, Bandar Gaz, Aliabad and Kalaleh cities during the months of May to September in 2019-2020. Plant tissues were transferred to the laboratory (Department of Plant Protection) in separate paper bags along with specifications. Purification was performed on a 2% water-agar medium using Hyphal tip method. Based on investigations and morphological data, a number of isolates were selected as representatives for molecular identification. Genomic DNA was extracted from mycelia grown in PDB (Potato Dextrose Broth) culture medium according to the CTAB method with a slight modification, and the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was performed according to Nemati and Abdulhazadeh method. The ITS region (ITS4-5.8S-ITS5) of the selected isolates was amplified during the PCR reaction using ITS5 (5'-GGAAGTAAAAGTCGTAACAAGG-3') and ITS4 (5'- TCCTCCGCTTATTGATATGC-3') primers and The β-tubulin region was amplified by T1 (5'-AACATGCGTGAGATTGTAAGT-3') and β Sandy-R (5'-GCRCGNGGVACRTACTTGTT-3') primers. Purification and sequencing of PCR products was done by Pishgam Biotechnology Company. The sequences of ITS and β-tubulin regions were modified and extracted using Chromas 2.6.6 software. Nucleotide sequences of the selected isolates were compared with the available sequences in the Gene bank by Blast algorithm and the sequences data were submitted in the NCBI database website. Phylogenetic trees were drawn using the Maximum likelihood method and MEGA 6.06 software.

Results and Discussion
Based on preliminary morphological studies, 20 isolates were selected as representatives of purified isolates and were identified by molecular analysis. In this study, a total of 39 fungal isolates were obtained, that the highest number of the isolates belonged to the pods of rice plants with the frequency of 17 isolates and the lowest number of isolates belonged to the roots of rice plants with 10 isolates. Among the 6 genera identified in this research, the largest number of isolates was belonged to Alternaria and Fusarium genera, with 18 and 6 isolates, respectively, and the highest number of species was belonged to Fusarium genus with 6 species. Fungal species include: F. chlamydosporum, F. proliferatum, F. incarnatum, F. solani, F. fujikuroi, F. verticillioides, S. bactrocephalum, N. sphaerica, N. oryzae, A. alternata, E. nigrum, C. cladosporioides. Among these species, Nigrospora sphaerica, E. nigrum and S. bactrocephalum are reported for the first time in this study as rice plant endophytes in Iran.

Conclusion
Investigation of endophytic fungi in the present study indicates that some of these isolates, including F. chlamydosporum, F. proliferatum, F. fujikuroi are pathogenic fungi. It means that range of the endophytic life and pathogenic life cannot be separated and determined and environmental conditions and nutritional status determine the type of interaction. F. chlamydosporum causes Fusarium root and crown rot, is reported in some sources as an endophytic fungus in various plants.
Introduction Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa L.) is a highly nutritional seed crop from the Andean region with huge genetic variability, enabling its cultivation across a wide range of environmental conditions. The area and production under... more
Introduction
Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa L.) is a highly nutritional seed crop from the Andean region with huge genetic variability, enabling its cultivation across a wide range of environmental conditions. The area and production under quinoa in the world in 2020 was 189000 ha with 175000 tonnes production. There is some evidence for allelopathic activity of quinoa and this potential could be probably used in terms of integrated weed management. Agronomic practices such as nitrogen fertilization influence weed emergence, growth and competition in a crop. Nevertheless, despite the numerous studies on new and promising crops globally, there is a clear lack of information on the combined effect of weed density and nitrogen fertilizer sources on quinoa crop. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of nitrogen fertilizer sources and red root pigweed densities on growth, yield and competitive ability of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd). This information could be helpful for the overall development of crop and weed management strategies in quinoa crop.
Materials and Methods
A field study was conducted during the 2021 growing season at the research farm of the School of Agriculture, Shiraz University, to assess the impact of nitrogen fertilizer sources on the growth, yield, and competitive ability of quinoa in the presence of red root pigweed at different densities. The experiment was set up in a split-plot design with nitrogen fertilizer sources (control, urea, sulfur-coated urea, and ammonium nitrate) assigned to the main plots, and red root pigweed densities (0, 5, 10, 15, 20, and 25 plants per square meter) assigned to the sub-plots. There were three replications of each treatment. For the quinoa traits and weed traits, a 2-meter square area was harvested from each plot. Quinoa traits included plant height, leaf area index, number of grains per plant, 1000 grain weight, grain yield, biological yield, and harvest index. The quinoa plants were dried in an oven at 75°C for 72 hours to determine seed yield. Weeds were also harvested from a 2 m2 area in each plot to measure plant height, shoot height, panicle length, and leaf area index. The collected data were analyzed using SAS v. 9.1 software (SAS Institute 2003). When significant differences were found among treatments, mean comparisons were performed using Duncan's multiple range tests at a significance level of P < 0.05.
Results and Discussion
The results of the experiment indicated that the use of sulfur coated urea had a positive effect on the competitive ability of quinoa. Weed density had a detrimental impact on various growth and yield parameters of quinoa, including plant height, leaf area index, number of grains per plant, 1000 grain weight, grain yield, biological yield, and harvest index. However, the application of sulfur coated urea mitigated the negative effects of weed density. Specifically, when the highest weed density of 25 plants per square meter was present, the application of sulfur coated urea led to a 1.1-fold increase in plant height, a 2.5-fold increase in leaf area index, a 2.5-fold increase in the number of grains per plant, a 1.1-fold increase in 1000 grain weight, a 2.8-fold increase in grain yield, and a 1.8-fold increase in biological yield compared to the control. At different red root pigweed densities (0, 5, 10, 15, 20, and 25 plants per square meter), the application of sulfur coated urea resulted in significant improvements in quinoa performance. It increased the number of grains per plant by 86.5%, 118%, 139.4%, 168.8%, 149.6%, and 153.4% compared to the control at respective weed densities. Additionally, 1000 grain weight increased by 7.9% to 9.9%, and the ability of quinoa to withstand competition increased by 19.6% to 55%. The findings of this study are consistent with previous research that has demonstrated the positive effects of organic nutrients on reducing weed competition in agricultural systems. It has also been observed that weeds tend to produce more biomass in the presence of fertilizer compared to the control. Therefore, it can be concluded that the improved grain yield of quinoa resulting from the application of sulfur coated urea was primarily attributed to its ability to enhance the plant's competitive ability against weeds.
Conclusion
The application of sulfur coated urea led to a higher quinoa yield compared to using control. However, weed competition was greater with urea fertilization in comparison with sulfur coated urea fertilizer. In addition, most weeds are highly responsive to soil N, so the application of all fertilizer types should be carefully considered to reduce the competitive advantage of weeds over crops.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the School of Agriculture, Shiraz University for their support, cooperation, and assistance throughout this research.
Introduction The world's population continues to grow, and agriculture must keep pace with increasing demand for food production. Many challenges threaten crop yields, such as herbivorous insects, plant pathogens and weeds, the... more
Introduction
The world's population continues to grow, and agriculture must keep pace with increasing demand for food production. Many challenges threaten crop yields, such as herbivorous insects, plant pathogens and weeds, the occurrence or risk of each one often requires the use of pesticides. Despite the usefulness of pesticides in crop protection, their excessive and irrational use can endanger human health and the environment. On the other hand, the very costly application of chemical fertilizers, especially nitrogen, which is a key element in plant nutrition under insufficient soil fertility conditions, can cause groundwater pollution with nitrate and air pollution with nitrogen oxide (21). Although herbicides are intended to protect crops, they can potentially pose a threat to the activity of rhizobium that symbiosis with legumes, thereby reducing the nitrogen fixation of symbionts. If symbiotic nitrogen fixation is adversely affected, crop yield will subsequently be adversely affected (6). All previous studies on the effect of herbicides on crop-rhizobium symbiosis under a certain soil pH have been evaluated. Therefore, it is important to understand the interaction between soil pH and the toxicity severity of herbicides on crop-rhizobium symbiosis, because soil acidification or alkalization (4) can occur over several years in intensive agricultural ecosystems. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate whether the severity of herbicide toxicity on crop-rhizobium symbiosis in different soil pH conditions can be attributed to variations in the electrical charge properties of herbicides. Based on this hypothesis, three herbicides were selected: ethalfluralin, a non-ionic herbicide, imazethapyr, an acidic herbicide, and metribuzin, a basic herbicide (23). The objective was to examine their toxicity on soybean-rhizobium symbiosis under three soil pH levels.
Materials and Methods
The soil required for this experiment was prepared from the educational farm of Bu-Ali Sina University of Hamedan, which had a pH of 7.2. This soil is considered as natural soil. Based on a pre-test results on natural soil, adding and mixing 0.2 g sulfur and 5.5 g lime with each kg natural soil could create artificial soils with pH of 6.4 and 8, respectively. The pot experiment was performed in a completely randomized factorial design under open-air conditions. Herbicidal factor included control, pre-planting application of 990 g ethalfluralin ha-1, post-planting application of 450 g metribuzin ha-1and post-emergence application of 108 g imazethapyr ha-1. Soil pH factor was 6.4, 7.2 and 8. Soybean seeds (cv. Hobbit) were disinfected with 1% sodium hypochlorite for five min and washed and dried with water. They were then immersed in commercial soybean inoculum (BiosoyTM) for five min and dried again. Inside each pot, four seeds inoculated with bacteria were planted at two cm depth. Separately, an inoculated seed treatment under natural soil conditions without herbicide application was considered to investigate the effects of seed inoculation. Growth parameters including height, dry weight of stem and root, number and dry weight of nodes formed on root, the nitrogen content of stems and roots were measured and analyzed statistically using SAS software. The means were compared with the LSD test at the level of 5% probability.
Results and Discussion
In comparing the two treatments of seed inoculation and non-inoculation with a commercial soybean inoculum and their cultivation in natural soil, it was found that seed inoculation had a significant positive impact on various growth parameters. Specifically, it led to increased plant height, dry weight of shoots and roots, as well as nitrogen content in both shoots and roots. Additionally, there was a notable decrease in the shoot-to-root dry weight ratio. Previous studies have also reported similar results, indicating changes in the photosynthetic response pattern due to bacterial seed inoculation in different soybean genotypes (16). In treatments where no herbicide was used (control), soybean nodulation and certain growth parameters were significantly influenced by soil pH. The highest level of nodulation was observed at soil pH values of 7.2 and 8.The lowest number of nodes (21.3 node plant-1) and the lowest dry weight of nodes (491.8 mg plant-1) were also observed in soil with a pH of 6.4. Poor nodulation observed at acidic soil pH may be associated with hydrogen ion toxicity, which may prevent the onset of nodulation, as reported in previous studies (3). The results showed that the toxicity severity of imazethapyr and metribuzin on nodulation (number and dry weight of nodules) depended on soil pH. As the pH of the soil increased, the toxicity of imazethapyr decreased, but the toxicity of metribuzin increased. While the toxicity severity of ethalfluralin on nodulation was not affected by soil pH.
Conclusion
Despite the advantages of herbicide application, it can have negative effects on soybean-rhizobium symbiosis, limiting the capacity of rhizobium for nitrogen fixation. Consequently, the reliance on chemical fertilizers increases to meet the nutritional needs of soybeans. Additionally, in acidic soils where herbicides are less absorbed by soil particles, further disruption of the soybean-rhizobium symbiosis can occur. Our experiment revealed that the use of metribuzin in alkaline pH soil or imazethapyr in acidic pH soil can cause severe damage to the soybean-rhizobium symbiosis. As soil acidity or alkalinity can change rapidly in agricultural ecosystems due to conventional farming practices such as lime or sulfur addition to adjust soil pH, it is crucial for farmers to consider the electrical charge of herbicides and the pH of their soil. This awareness can help minimize the herbicide toxicity on soybean-rhizobium symbiosis.
Introduction Wheat (Triticum aestivum) is one of the most important crops in Fars province and Iran. The area under cultivation of this crop is 337,000 hectares in Fars’s province. The weeds are one of the most famous factors limiting in... more
Introduction
Wheat (Triticum aestivum) is one of the most important crops in Fars province and Iran. The area under cultivation of this crop is 337,000 hectares in Fars’s province. The weeds are one of the most famous factors limiting in the production of wheat in Iran and the world. Weeds can decrease grain yield of wheat by competing for resources such as water, light and nutrients and production of allelopathic compounds. If weeds are not controlled at this crop, cause great damage to the wheat. The amount of weed damage in wheat fields of Iran has been reported to be about 20 to 25%. The most important weeds of wheat in Fars are including Mavla neglecta Wallr., Centaurea solstitialis L., Veronica persica L., Carthamus oxyacanthus M.B., Capsella bursa-pastoris, L., Descurainia Sophia (L.) Webb&Berth, Hirschfeldia incana L., Lolium rigidum L., Avena fatua L., Bromus tectorum L. Application of herbicides is the most prevalent method of weed control in wheat fields. There are 26 herbicides registered for weed control in wheat in Iran, which are mainly used post-emergence. Herbicides are recommended for weed control in wheat included of Total, Othello, Atlantis, Geranestar, Bromicid MA, Apiros, Tapik and Axial. Therefore, it is necessary to register new herbicides with different site of action in this crop. This experiment was conducted to investigate the new herbicide efficacy of clodinafop propargil+ metribuzin in control of wheat fields, determination of the most appropriate dose, comparison of the effectiveness of new herbicide with the herbicides was recorded in wheat and the reaction of wheat to the herbicide
Materials and Methods
In order to study the effect of herbicides to control weeds of wheat fields, an experiment was conducted during 2020- 2021 at Fars Agricultural and Natural Resources Research and Education Center, Darab, Iran. Plots were located on a clay loam soil with pH 7.9. This experiment was carried out in randomized complete block design with 13 treatments and 4 replications. The treatments included post emergence application of Total (methsulfuron+ sulfosulfuron, 80% WG) at dose rate of 40 g ha-1, Othello (mesosulfuron+iodosulfuron+ diflufenican, 6% OD) at dose rate of 1.6 L ha-1, Tapik (clodinafop propargil, 8% EC) + Geranestar (tribenuron, 75% DF) at dose rates of 0.8 L ha-1+ 20 g ha-1, Tapik (clodinafop propargil) + Bromicid MA (bromoxynil+ MCPA, 40% EC) at dose rates of 1 L ha-1+ 1.5 L ha-1, ACM– 9 (clodinafop propargil + metribuzin, 29% WP) at dose rates of 500, 600, 700 g ha-1, Shagun 21-11 (clodinafop propargil+ metribuzin, 54% WG) at dose rates of 200, 300, 400, 500, 600 g ha-1 and weeding control. The herbicides were applied using a Matabi sprayer equipped with an 8002 flat fan nozzle tip delivering 350 L ha-1 at 2 bar spray pressure. Weed numbers and dry weights were determined in random 0.50-m2 quadrates per plot. The grain yield and biological yield were recorded for a 2 m2 and 0.50 m2 from each plot, respectively. Parameters were recorded including and control percentage of density, weed biomass, plant height, grains per spike, number spikes, 1000 grains weigh, grain yield and biological yield. Statistical analyses of data were done with SAS var 9 software and comparison of mean was tested using the LSD test at 5% level.
Results and Discussion
The weed infestations in the study consisted of Hirschfeldia incana L., Centaurea pallescens L., Veronica persica L., Malva neglecta L., Lolium rigidum L., and Convolvulus arvensis L. Among these weeds, Centaurea pallescens had the highest relative weight at 24%, while Convolvulus arvensis had the lowest relative weight at 8%. In terms of relative density, Veronica persica had the highest value at 44%, while Convolvulus arvensis had the lowest at 7%. Statistical analysis of the data revealed that the application of herbicides significantly reduced weed density and biomass. It also led to increased plant height, number of spikes per m2, grains per spike, 1000 grains weight, grain yield, and biological yield. Visual observations confirmed the effective control of these weeds using the ACM herbicide at a dose rate of 700 g ha-1. The best herbicide treatment for weed control was Tapik+ Bromicid MA, followed by ACM herbicide at a dose rate of 700 g ha-1. The ACM herbicide at a dose rate of 700 g ha-1 resulted in a significant reduction in biomass for Malva neglecta (87%), Lolium rigidum (76%), Hirschfeldia incana (81%), Centaurea pallescens (90%), Veronica persica (86%), and total weed (80%) compared to the weed control. Furthermore, when the ACM herbicide was applied at a dose rate of 700 g ha-1, the grain yield and biological yield were 5.65 and 14.51 tons ha-1, respectively. This treatment also led to a 26% increase in grain yield and a 25% increase in biological yield compared to the control.
Conclusion
Results showed that applications of powder formulation of clodinafop+ metribuzin herbicide at dose rate of 700 g ha-1 had acceptable weed control efficacy and increased wheat yield. Therefore, the application of clodinafop+ metribuzin (WP) herbicide at dose rate of 700 g ha-1 is suggested for wheat fields.
Introduction The effectiveness of herbicides is influenced not only by the active ingredients and their toxicity but also by the formulation of the herbicide. Conventional herbicide formulations include wettable powder and emulsifiable... more
Introduction
The effectiveness of herbicides is influenced not only by the active ingredients and their toxicity but also by the formulation of the herbicide. Conventional herbicide formulations include wettable powder and emulsifiable concentrate (EC). EC formulations are prepared by mixing the active ingredient with solvents and surfactants. However, these formulations can have negative phytotoxic effects due to hazardous solvents and can be unsafe for operators during application. As an alternative to EC formulations, capsule suspension (CS) formulation has been considered. EPTC is a thiocarbamate herbicide used to control the growth of germinating annual weeds, including broadleaves, grasses, and sedges, in crops such as tobacco in Iran. EPTC acts by inhibiting cuticle formation during the early stages of seedling growth. It is available in formulated products such as emulsifiable concentrate (EC) liquids containing up to 87.8% active ingredient and granular (G) formulations containing up to 25% active ingredient. However, there have been few studies on the production of microcapsule formulations of this herbicide. This experiment aimed to evaluate the weed control effectiveness of EPTC microcapsule formulation, which was synthesized for the first time in Iran. Additionally, the study examined the effect of the herbicide extender, Ammonium thiosulfate, at different doses and application methods.
Materials and Methods
To investigate the effectiveness of different herbicide formulations and application methods, a three-way factorial experiment was conducted in Tirtash Research and Education Center in Mazandaran province, Iran, during the 2014 growing season. The experiment followed a randomized complete design (CRD) with three replications.
The factors studied in the experiment were:
1. Herbicide formulation:
o Emulsifiable concentrate formulation (Eradicane® EC 82%)
o Emulsifiable concentrate formulation with Ammonium thiosulfate
o Microcapsule formulation
2. Herbicide dose:
o 50% of the recommended active ingredient (2.46 kg a.i. ha-1)
o 75% of the recommended active ingredient (3.69 kg a.i. ha-1)
o 100% of the recommended active ingredient (4.92 kg a.i. ha-1)
3. Herbicide application method:
o Soil-incorporated pre-planting
o Pre-planting
A control plot with no herbicide application was also included. Throughout the growing season, weed density, weed dry weight, and tobacco yield were measured. The relative weed control compared to the control treatment was used to evaluate the efficiency of the different treatments. The collected data was subjected to analysis of variance using Minitab (Version 18), and mean comparisons were performed using the honestly significant difference (HSD) test at a significance level of 0.05.
Results and Discussion
Based on the relative frequency of weeds, Setaria viridis L. and Amaranthus retroflexus L. were dominant species. The experimental results show the effects of formulation type, application dose and method of application on weed density and weed dry weight and tobacco yield were statistically significant difference. The microcapsule formulation increased weed control efficiency and tobacco yield significantly compared to EC formulation and the highest weed control performance and tobacco yield belong to the soil incorporated of microcapsule formulation with recommended dose.
Conclusions
The results indicated that the utilization of a microcapsule formulation allows for a 25% reduction in the application dose of the EPTC herbicide, without compromising weed control or tobacco yield. Consequently, there were no significant differences observed between applying 75% of the recommended dose using the microcapsule formulation and applying 100% of the recommended dose using the EC formulation, with or without the extender. Based on these findings, it is crucial to promptly mix the herbicide with the soil immediately after spraying in order to maintain the efficiency of EPTC. Furthermore, it was discovered that employing two-thirds of the recommended dose of the microcapsule formulation yields the same level of effectiveness as the recommended dose of other formulations. Additionally, incorporating the EPTC herbicide with soil in all formulations enhanced weed control efficacy. In contrast to previous research suggesting the positive impact of extender adjuvants such as ammonium thiosulfate on herbicide efficiency, this study did not observe similar effects. This discrepancy may be attributed to the varying soil and climatic conditions at the test site.
Introduction Saffron is one the most expensive crops and like other agricultural products, attacked by pest such as bulb Mite Rhizoglyphus robini Claparede (Acari: Astigmata). The bulb mite is one of the most important soil pest attacking... more
Introduction
Saffron is one the most expensive crops and like other agricultural products, attacked by pest such as bulb Mite Rhizoglyphus robini Claparede (Acari: Astigmata). The bulb mite is one of the most important soil pest attacking plants with bulbs, corms and also tubers. In Iran it has been reported by Rahimi and Kamali (1993) for the first time on saffron corms from Gonabad and Qaen cities. Also it has been recorded that the bulb mite feeding on soil born fungi (Diaz et al., 2000; Nesvorna et al., 2012). On the other hand, there are many saprophytic fungi into the soil of saffron fields. Subsequently it may question whether the mite is primary or secondary pest on saffron corms. Despite many literatures on biology and ecology of Rhizoglyphus mites, there is not sufficient evidence on understanding the biology, behavior and colonization of R. robini regarding its damage to saffron corms when arriving after establishment of the soil born fungi.
Materials and Methods
To investigate the impact of soil-borne fungi on the biology of the bulb mite, we obtained a cohort of even-aged eggs from the mites in our stock culture. These eggs were then transferred to individual experimental units and monitored until they reached adulthood. Daily observations were made and recorded.
To assess mite fecundity, we selected thirty young ovipositing females and divided them into two groups: one group was exposed to fungal infection while the other group was not. Each saffron corm was placed in a 50mm Petri dish lined with wet filter paper. A starved mated female was added to each dish, and every three days for a period of 21 days, the number of eggs laid per dish was counted and then removed. The number of eggs per day per female was calculated based on these counts.
To study the attraction of bulb mites to the fungus, saffron corm sections with and without fungal infection were placed in a 50mm Petri dish. Four sections, with equal distances from each other and from the center, were arranged. Female R. robini mites were introduced into the dish, and after a four-hour period, the number of mites on each section was recorded.
For evaluating the population dynamics of the mite, we used four types of saffron corms: healthy corms, corms infected by the fungus, mechanically injured corms, and corms both infected and injured. Each experimental unit consisted of three saffron corms of the same size placed in an 80mm Petri dish. Five adult mites were added to each unit. Continuous observations were made daily to track the initial penetration and colonization of the mites in each treatment. The numbers of all motile stages of mites in each experimental unit were recorded using a stereomicroscope. These observations continued until the corms were completely destroyed by the feeding mites.
Results and Discussion
After culturing of sections of infected corms and mite body, the fungi, Penicillium spp., Aspergillus niger Vantieghem, Embelisia sp. and Fusarium oxysporum Schlecht were isolated and identified mutually in both samples. As the fungus F. oxysporum was the most abundant species, then it was used in the experiments. The fungus significantly affected the generation time (from egg stage to egg produced by adult) of the mite (Table. 1). Also mite fecundity was significantly higher on infested corms with the fungus than on non-infested ones (t = 10.79, d.f.= 27.31, P<0.001)(Figure 1). An obvious attraction of the females was observed toward fungal infected sections and significantly more mites were recorded on them than non-infected ones (W = 400, P<0.001)(Figure. 2).These findings are supported by some other studies (Czajkowska, 1995; Kasuga and Honda 2006; Ofek et al., 2013). Higher fecundity and faster development when mites were fed on the fungus on the infected corms are probably due to availability of a special nutrient source (mycelium). The ability of the bulb mite to digest fungi has been attributed to chitinase-producing symbiotic bacteria (Zindel et al., 2013). Based on the evidence provided by this study and previous ones (Okabe and Amano, 1990; Ofek et al., 2013), the mite R. robini was attracted more to fungal infected corms, it might because of metabolites and alcoholic secretions of the fungi. These findings demonstrate the suitability of saffron corms infected with soil fungi for development and population increase of the Robine mite.
The result on mite penetration and population dynamics on four types of treated corms indicated that the mite on infected corms penetrated within two weeks and thereafter population increased exponentially until the end of 5th week. In comparison on healthy corms and even injured ones the mite showed almost no increase during first three weeks and it was not able to penetrate and develop a stable colony on these corms. Also on infected and injured treatment similar population dynamics was observed as on infected ones (Figure. 3). These observations implying that the mite for penetrating into healthy corms encounters some difficulty and considerable time is needed to establish and colonized on such environment. Okabe and Amano (1991) has been found similar results and suggested that earlier penetrations of mites result in a faster population growth and colonization.
Conclusion
For many years the saffron bulb mite has been considered as a primary pest and historically control strategies has relied on the use of chemical miticides (for disinfection and etc.,) and some non-chemical methods. Subsequently the role of soil born fungi has receiving limited attention in this regards. According to the results of the present study, this acarine pest relies on the soil born fungi to penetrate and establish on the saffron corms. In other words, a close relationship exists between fungal infection and damage by R. robini on saffron bulbs. It suggest that for improving management strategies in regards of this pest, we should consider the role of saprophytic fungi as a main cause which provides condition for the bulb mite colonization and occurring damage. Further researches is proposed using appropriate methods to suppress soil born fungi and subsequent the bulb mite damage on saffron.
Introduction The Indian meal moth, Plodia interpunctella (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) (Hubner, 1813) is one of the most important and well-known stored-product pests in most parts of the world. The larvae of this insect are omnivorous and... more
Introduction
The Indian meal moth, Plodia interpunctella (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) (Hubner, 1813) is one of the most important and well-known stored-product pests in most parts of the world. The larvae of this insect are omnivorous and have the ability to grow and reproduce on a wide variety of grains, dried fruits, dried vegetables, nuts, oil seeds, chocolate, animal feed and various processed products. Therefore, it causes economic losses to various agricultural and stored products. On the other hand, this insect is used as a host in the rearing of various useful insect species. In general, the Indian moth eats carbohydrate-rich foods, and its growth and development is highly dependent on biochemical compounds and especially the quality and quantity of nutrients in its diet. The enzymes like amylase and pectinase in the digestive system of the lepidoperan larvae, which are secreted by the cells of the midgut, play an effective role in the digestion and absorption of food. Investigating some of the biological and physiological properties of this insect on various types of foods will help to optimize the rearing of this insect for management studies and also as a host for rearing of other pest insect’s predators and parasitoids.
Materials and Methods
In this study, we investigated the effects of different diets, namely raisin, fig, pistachio, peanut, almond, and walnut, which are known to be the main hosts of the Indian meal moth, on the protein content in the last instar larval gut. We compared their protein patterns and content using SDS-PAGE. Additionally, we measured the activities of the digestive enzymes alpha-amylase and pectinase using the DNS (Dinitrosalicylic acid) assay. Alpha-amylase activity was assessed using 1% starch as a substrate, while pectinase activity was measured using pectin as the substrate. To facilitate a better comparison of the relative enzymatic activities, the activities were calculated as a percentage of the highest enzymatic activity. Furthermore, we compared several biological parameters, including the incubation period, larval period, pupal period, adult longevity, life span, and adult emergence.
Results and Discussion
The results of the study revealed that the Indian meal moth larvae had the lowest amounts of gut protein when fed on figs and raisins, while the highest amounts were observed in larvae fed on pistachios, peanuts, almonds, and walnuts. The determination of protein levels using the Bradford method and SDS-PAGE gel electrophoresis yielded consistent results, clearly indicating the protein concentrations in the samples. The activity of the alpha-amylase enzyme in the larvae's gut was highest in those fed on pistachios and lowest in those fed on figs. Similarly, the pectinase enzyme showed the highest activity in larvae fed on pistachios and the lowest activity in those fed on raisins. The embryonic period of the Indian meal moth remained consistent across different diets. However, when comparing the duration of the larval period, pupal period, and overall growth period, the shortest duration was observed in larvae fed on pistachios, while the longest duration was seen in those fed on raisins. The length of the growth period tends to increase when the insect is fed on less desirable food sources. Regarding lifespan, the shortest duration was observed in the diets consisting of almonds and pistachios, while the longest lifespan was recorded in those fed on raisins. When examining adult emergence, the diets of almonds and figs showed the highest and lowest values, respectively. In conclusion, pistachios, almonds, and walnuts were found to be more favorable diets for the Indian meal moth larvae compared to peanuts, figs, and raisins.
Conclusion
This study aimed to determine the optimal diet for rearing the Indian meal moth. The investigated diets, which are major food sources for this insect, were found to have an impact on the amount and concentration of intestinal protein in the last instar larvae, as well as the activity of alpha-amylase and pectinase enzymes. Significant differences were observed in various physiological and biological components among the diets. The highest values for all these components were observed in the larvae reared on a pistachio diet, while the lowest values were found in those reared on fig and raisin diets. Based on the findings of this research, it can be concluded that pistachio, walnut, and almond diets are favorable and suitable for laboratory breeding of the Indian meal moth, compared to peanut, raisin, and fig diets. Among these diets, pistachio was identified as the most optimal choice.
Introduction Due to the process of quality control of agricultural products and accurate assessment of pesticide residues in products exported to destination countries, the application of biological control has become essential. In order... more
Introduction
Due to the process of quality control of agricultural products and accurate assessment of pesticide residues in products exported to destination countries, the application of biological control has become essential. In order to use biological control, biological agents must either be purchased from countries with the technology of mass production of natural enemies, or to meet the needs of the country, the technology of mass production of predators and parasitoids must be developed. In the case of mass rearing of predatory mites, which are mostly used to control spider mite, the problem of mass prodaction has been partially resolved and some companies are rearing, but in mass rearing of these predators, destructive effects on non-target natural enemies and mold growth on the rearing media of predatory mites are problematic. The predatory mite, Amblyseius swirskii (Athias-Henriot) is one of the most common biological agents for control of two-spotted mite, whitefly and onion thrips in greenhouses, which is widely used in greenhouse crops worldwide. The importance of this study is to facilitate the mass production of this predatory mite. In mass production of this predator, a medium with eggs, nymphal stages, and mature mites of Carpoglyphus lactis Linnaeus was used at 25 ± 1 ° C, 70 ± 5% RH and L: D 16: 8. One of the most important limitation in the production of this predator is infection with some fungi such as Rhizopus spp., Aspergillus spp,and Penicillium spp., which caused the deterioration of the medium and consequently the death of dried fruit mites and predatory mites in the production environment.
Materials and Methods
To investigate the efficacy of five componds on fungal control, an experiment was achieved with twelve treatments in a completely  randomized design in three replication. From the culture medium (800 g of elm flour, 195 g of wheat bran and 5 g of palm pollen) plus 1g/kg of compounds: tebuconazole, baking soda (sodium bicarbonate), Caliban® (potassium bicarbonate), Chitosan®, and carbendazim and in treatments where two compounds were mixed, 0.5 g/kg was used.
Results and Discussion
The analysis of variance for the treatments revealed significant differences in fungal infection reduction and the population dynamics of the mites. The treatments that showed the highest reduction in fungal infection compared to the control were treatments 1 (tebuconazole®), 3 (Caliban®), and 6 (Trichocara®), with reductions of 66.33%, 63.25%, and 28.62%, respectively.
In terms of the population increase of the prey mite C. lactis, the treatments that exhibited the highest increases were treatments 1 (tebuconazole®), 10 (Chitosan = tebuconazole), and 6 (Trichocara®), with population increases of 80.22%, 65.75%, and 65.15%, respectively.
Regarding the population increase of the predatory mite A. swirskii, the treatments that showed the highest increases were treatments 1 (tebuconazole®) and 6 (Trichocara®), with population increases of 76.33% and 72.66%, respectively, in the first group. In the second group, treatments 3 (Caliban®), 2 (soda), and 10 (Chitosan + tebuconazole) exhibited population increases of 56.33%, 54.66%, and 53.66%, respectively.
These results demonstrate the effectiveness of treatments 1 (tebuconazole®) and 6 (Trichocara®) in reducing fungal infection and promoting the population growth of both prey and predatory mites. Treatments 3 (Caliban®), 10 (Chitosan = tebuconazole), and 2 (soda) also showed positive effects on the population dynamics of the mites.
Conclusion
The predator mite population of A. swirskii is able to complete its growth on growth substrates with prey mite C. lactis. This predator has a high potential in feeding on dry fruit mite C. lactis. Therefore, this bait can be a suitable food for the mass production of A. swirskii mites. The most important problem in rearing large numbers of predatory mites is saprophytic fungi, which cause the destruction of a large number of predatory mites and their prey due to their sudden expansion. In general, according to the results of our study, the use of tebuconazole fungicide at a rate of one per thousand of commercial material and also the biological compound of Trichocara® (Trichoderma virens) with a concentration of one per thousand are recommended to control saprophytic fungi in mass production environment of predatory mite,A. swirskii,. Each of these two compounds has its advantages and disadvantages. In terms of availability, tabuconazole is more readily accessible compared to Trichocara®, which is a biological compound and considered more environmentally safe. However, Trichocara® may darken the color of the culture medium slightly due to the growth of Trichoderma virens in the medium. Considering the economic aspect and cost reduction in mass production of predatory mites, baking soda and Caliban®, which were part of the second group of effective treatments, offer economic value and are much cheaper than other compounds. They can effectively reduce the severity of fungal infections at minimal cost. Among the different compounds tested, the use of tebuconazole fungicide at a rate of one gram per thousand grams of substrate showed the most significant effect in controlling fungi. Although sodium bicarbonate and potassium bicarbonate were found to be less effective, they are still viable options due to their non-toxic nature.
Introduction Downy mildew disease caused by Plasmopara viticola (Berk. & Curt.) Berl. & Toni is one of the most important diseases of vine. Especially in wet areas, it causes qualitative and quantitative damage to the crop. Although all... more
Introduction
Downy mildew disease caused by Plasmopara viticola (Berk. & Curt.) Berl. & Toni is one of the most important diseases of vine. Especially in wet areas, it causes qualitative and quantitative damage to the crop. Although all green parts of the grapevine are susceptible, the first symptoms of downy mildew of grapes are usually seen on the leaves as soon as 5 to 7 days after infection. Foliar symptoms appear as yellow circular spots with an oily appearance (oilspots). Young oilspots on young leaves are surrounded by a brownish-yellow halo. This halo fades as the oilspot matures. The spots are yellow in white grape varieties and red in some red grape varieties (e.g., Ruby Red). Under favorable weather conditions, large numbers of oilspots may develop and coalesce to cover most of the leaf surface. After suitably warm, humid nights, a white downy fungal growth (sporangia) will appear on the underside of the leaves and other infected plant parts. The disease gets its name "downy mildew" from the presence of this downy growth. In late summer and early fall, the diseased leaves take on a tapestry-like appearance when the growth of the pathogen is restricted by the veinlets. Confirmation of active downy mildew is made by the "bag test." To do this test, seal suspect diseased leaves and/or fruit bunches in a moistened (not wet) plastic bag and incubate in a warm (13-28ºC), dark place overnight. Look for fresh, white downy sporulation beneath suspect oilspots or on shoots or fruit bunches. Note that mature berries, although they may be symptomatic and harbor the pathogen, may not support sporulation even when provided with ideal conditions. Infected parts of young fruit bunches turn brown, wither, and die rapidly. If infections occur on the young bunch stalk, the entire inflorescence may die. Developing young berries will either die or, if between 3 and 5 mm in diameter, become discolored. Berries become resistant to infection within 2-3 week after bloom, although all parts of the rachis may remain susceptible 2 months after bloom. The pathogen survives the winter period as oospores embedded in dead leaves and other host tissue on the vineyard floor. Oospores may be released from the decaying plant material on the soil surface. Oospores typically produce sporangia. These sporangia, in turn, produce zoospores. Sporangia and zoospores are splashed by rain or carried by wind to the lower leaves and tissues of the grapevines. The conditions necessary for oospore germination are wet soils with temperatures above 10ºC. Sporangia for secondary infections are produced on sporangiophores that emerge through stomata of infected leaves and other grapevine tissues. Sexual reproduction occurs towards the end of the season. The resulting oospores are thick-walled and serve as survival spores.
Materials and Methods
The experiment was conducted in grape orchards located in Hamadan, Bojnourd, and Faruj, which had a history of Downey mildew. Different cultivars of grapes were selected for the experiment. The experimental design used was a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with 8 treatments and 4 replications.The control treatments included plots without any spraying and plots sprayed with water. The remaining treatments involved the application of specific treatments at three different stages. The first spraying was done before flowering, the second spraying after fall petals, and the third spraying 10 days after the second spray. Ten days after the final spraying, samples were collected from the grape leaves, and the percentage of disease incidence and disease severity were calculated. The data obtained for disease incidence and severity were analyzed using statistical software, such as SAS, and the means of these traits were compared using Duncan's multiple range test at a significance level of one percent. This test helps determine significant differences between the treatment means.
Results and Discussion
The analysis of variance conducted on the data obtained from the evaluation of treated grape leaves revealed a statistically significant effect of the treatments on reducing the percentage of disease severity and disease incidence. Among the treatments, Profiler® at concentrations of 3 ml L-1, 2.5 ml L-1, and 1 ml L-1, Mishocap® at 3 ml L-1, and Captan at 3 ml L-1 demonstrated high efficiency in controlling grape Downey mildew disease. The new fungicide Profiler® at a concentration of 3 ml L-1 exhibited an efficacy of 94% in Hamadan, 67% in Bojnourd, and 47% in Faruj. Profiler® at a concentration of 2.5 ml L-1 had slightly lower efficacy, but the difference was not statistically significant compared to Profiler® at 3 ml L-1. Interestingly, the control treatments, including water spraying and no spraying, did not show a significant difference in disease control compared to the treated plots. These results indicate that Profiler® at appropriate concentrations and Mishocap® and Captan at their recommended concentrations can be effective options for controlling grape Downey mildew disease.
Conclusion
Because both Profiler® 3 and 2.5 ml L-1concentrations are effective in controlling the disease, therefore in order to protect the health of the consumer and the environment as well as reduction in costs, the preferred dose is 2.5 ml L-1.
Introduction The competition of different weed species with native species for ecosystem resources is a serious threat to reduce global biodiversity. Among the invasive species, Arundo donax is considered one of the most invasive invasive... more
Introduction
The competition of different weed species with native species for ecosystem resources is a serious threat to reduce global biodiversity. Among the invasive species, Arundo donax is considered one of the most invasive invasive plant species in coasts, rivers and temperate regions. Knowing the relationship between changes in environmental conditions and climate change and Arundo donax with respect to the growth of native coastal species, as well as understanding the water wastage by this plant compared to native coastal plants, is vital to eliminate this plant in the current situation where there is drought in most areas.

Materials and Methods
In order to investigate the effect of drought and salinity treatment on the sprouting stages and growth time of rhizomes of Arundo donax an experiment was performed using rhizomes collected from Gorgan ecotype and in a completely randomized design with 4 replications in the growth chamber separately at 5 temperature levels (5, 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30 °C) at Ferdowsi University of Mashhad in 2020. Experimental treatments included different levels of drought stress {0 (distilled water), 0.4, -0.8 and -0.12 MPa} and different levels of salinity stress {0 (distilled water), 4, 8 and 12 dS. m}.
Results and Discussion
The general results of the experiment showed that increased levels of salinity and drought decreases the sprouting rate of rhizomes. The results also showed that sprouting of the rhizomes of the reed plant is possible from 5 °C to 30 °C, but the greatest sprouting rates occurred with the control treatment (no stress) at 15 °C (75%) and 20 ° C (66%) respectively. The lowest sprouting percentage (4%) was observed with 15 and 30 °C under the maximum salinity and drought levels. Sprouting percentage and other corresponding indices decreased with decreasing temperature from 15 °C to 5 °C, the same trend was observed with increasing temperature from 20 °C to 30  C, which shows that the best The temperature for the growth of reed rhizome buds is between 15 and 20 °C. The effect of salinity and drought on sprouting at different temperatures showed that with increasing salinity and drought stress level, the sprouting rate decreases, but with increasing drought level, the sprouting percentage decreased more than the salinity level and decreased the growth of reed rhizome buds more. Was affected by increasing soil dryness. The results of sprouting rate and sprouting percentage under environmental stresses also indicated that drought stress more than salinity stress can affect the growth of reed rhizome buds, in other words, this plant is more sensitive to drought stress. It is somewhat resistant to salinity stress, and perhaps this is why the abundance of this plant in the northern regions of Iran is higher than other regions. The triple interaction effect of salinity, dryness and temperature was significant in all parameters except the adjusted germination rate at the 99% probability level, which shows that the germination of the rhizome of Arundo donax plant is strongly affected by dryness, salinity and different temperatures and the existence of each of these treatments in natural conditions, it can disrupt its germination.
Conclusion
The results of the cultivation of Arundo donax rhizome at different temperatures and under salt and drought stress conditions showed that the growth of the rhizome of this plant was greatly affected by the stresses and the increase in the amount of stress led to a decrease in germination percentage. Also, rhizome cultivation at different temperatures led to determining the optimal germination temperature for the Arundo donax plant related to the ecotype in the northern regions of Iran and showed that the suitable temperature for the rhizome germination of this plant is 15 to 20 degrees Celsius. The results of the germination rate and the germination percentage under the applied environmental stresses also indicated that drought stress can affect the growth of Arundo donax rhizome buds more than salt stress, and in other words, this plant is more sensitive to drought stress and to some extent It is resistant to salt stress, and this is probably the reason why the abundance of this plant is more in the northern regions of Iran than in other regions. It grows best in well-drained soils where plenty of moisture is available and can spread from the water's edge to the shore far beyond the area previously occupied by woody coastal vegetation. It grows well in places where the water level is close to the soil surface or near it, which may be due to the sensitivity of this plant to drought stress, and on the other hand, small colonies of this plant can tolerate excessive salinity, but in conditions of widespread presence in one area, their tolerance to salinity decreases.
Introduction Maize (Zea mays L.) is the third most important cereal after rice and wheat, which is widely grown in the world and used as a primary staple food in many developing countries. The area and production under maize in the... more
Introduction
Maize (Zea mays L.) is the third most important cereal after rice and wheat, which is widely grown in the world and used as a primary staple food in many developing countries.  The area and production under maize in the world in 2020 was 202 M ha with 1162352997 tonnes production and contributed almost 5% of the world’s dietary energy supply. Recent projection indicates that by 2020 the demand of maize in all developing countries will overtake the demand of wheat and rice, with Asia accounting for nearly 60% of the global demand for maize.  Chemical control can be very important because of the low efficiency and cost effectiveness of mechanical or other methods of weed control. Hence, it is necessary to provide information about the sulfonylurea herbicides and suitable doses. Sulfonylureas such as iodosulfuron, nicosulfuron, rimsulfuron, and foramsulfuron are effective group of herbicides for annual and perennial weed control in maize. These herbicides provide a new chance for weed management in maize. Their mode of action occurs through inhibiting acetolactate synthase (ALS), thereby interfering with the production of branched-chain amino acids, leucine, isoleucine, and valine The objectives of this experiment were to evaluate the effect of different doses of MaisTer OD herbicide in comparison to the other herbicides on weeds control and growth and yield of corn.
Materials and Methods
In order to evaluate the effect of different herbicides on weeds control and growth and yield of corn, a field study carried out during 2015 growing seasons at Seydan, Marvdasht, Fars province, Iran. The experiment was conducted in a randomized complete block design with 3 replications. Treatments included different rates of MaisTer OD (1, 1.5 and 2 l ha-1), Acetochlor (4.5, 5 and 6 l ha-1), Cruz (1.5, 2 and 2.5 l ha-1), Ultima (1, 2 and 3 l ha-1) and 2,4-D+MCPA (1.5, 2 and 2.5 l ha-1) herbicides and weed free and weedy control. The number and biomass of aboveground weeds parts were harvested within three fixed 1 × 1 m quadrats in every plot, separated by species, enumerated, oven-dried at 75 °C for 48 h, and then weighed. Then, percent weed density and biomass reductions were measured. The traits included ear length, row number per ear, grain number per ear, grain number per row, 1000 grain weight, grain yield, biological yield and yield loss percentage. Data were analyzed using SAS v. 9.1 software (SAS Institute 2003). When significant differences were observed among treatments, mean comparisons were made using Duncan's multiple range tests (P < 0.05). Correlation coefficients between different traits were also calculated.
Results and Discussion
Results showed that the application of herbicide could reduce density and biomass of weed. The lowest biomass of redroot pigweed (Amaranthus retroflexus), lambsquarters (Chenopodium album), bindweed (Convolvulus arvensis), purple nutsedge (Cyperus rotundus) and foxtail millet (Setaria italica) was obtained, so that applying of MaisTer OD herbicide at 1.5 l ha-1 could be cause 47.10 and 27.36%, 69.38 and 56.22%, 66.79 and 70.94%, 66.85 and 74.26% and 66.85 and 80.15% reduction in density and total biomass of weeds in comparison with weedy control treatment, and grain yield increased by using MaisTer OD  herbicide at 1.5 l ha-1 in comparison to the other herbicides including Acetochlor (5 l ha-1), Cruz (2 l ha-1), Ultima (2 l ha-1) and 2,4-D+MCPA (2 l ha-1) by 53.3, 36.7, 5.7, and 56.7%, respectively. Grain yield and grain number per ear were reduced by weeds up to 60 and 50%, respectively. Highest row number per ear (16 and 15.30), grain number per row (41 and 41), grain number per ear (656 and 628.70), 1000 grain weight (286.33 and 276.33 g), grain yield (9.41 and 8.68 t ha-1) and biological yield (20.12 and 18.74 t ha-1) were obtained in weed free and MaisTer OD (1.5 l ha-1) treatments. Applying MaisTer OD herbicide showed lowest yield loss percentage (6.63%) and highest grain yield as compared to the other herbicides for weed suppression. 
Conclusion
It can conclude that MaisTer OD herbicide at 1.5 l ha-1 showed the best performance for weed control, especially broadleaf weeds and were associated with the maximum corn grain yield. Therefore, due to the restricted use of herbicide in corn, the herbicide used in this experiment is not created serious injury in corn at the recommended rate while effectively controlling weeds. Hence, utilization of this herbicide could be a favorable option in contemporary weed control programs for local or regional corn growers.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the School of Agriculture, Shiraz University for their support, cooperation, and assistance throughout this research.
Introduction Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is one of the world’s most important food crops. Currently, more than one third of the human population relies on rice for their daily sustenance. Rice is predominantly grown by transplanting seedlings... more
Introduction
Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is one of the world’s most important food crops. Currently, more than one third of the human population relies on rice for their daily sustenance. Rice is predominantly grown by transplanting seedlings into puddled (conventional wet-tillage) soil and kept flooded for most part of the growing season. The puddled soil ensures good crop establishment, weed control with standing water, and reduces deep-percolation losses. However, the conventional method of rice crop establishment requires a large amount of water, labour, and energy, which are gradually becoming scarce and more expensive. Thus, reducing the profitability and sustainability of puddled transplanted rice. Dry direct seeded rice has shown promise under several ecologies and production systems to overcome these challenges, and is considered as potential alternative to puddled transplanted rice. Weed infestation in direct-seeded rice fields remains the single largest constraint limiting their productivity. An effective early weed management tactic is imperative for any direct-seeded rice production technology aiming at achieving higher productivity and profitability.
Materials and Methods
In order to investigate the effect of different weed managements on yield and yield components of rice in the direct crop system, an experiment was conducted in 2020 on farms located in Babolsar (Behnamir). The experiment was performed as a factorial based on randomized complete block design with three replications. Experimental factors include rice cultivars (Shiroudi, Khazar and Hashemi) as well as other treatments including weed control by increasing the competitiveness of rice seeds by coating and weed management at five levels including coating the seeds with CaCl2 and KCl, weeding, chemical control (Council active) and control  (no weeding).
Results and Discussion
Weed management by coating rice seeds with calcium chloride, potassium chloride, chemical control and weeding was reduced 26, 26, 23 and 63% dry weight of broadleaf weeds and 14, 27, 9 and 36% dry weight of narrow leaf weeds, respectively, compared to control treatment. The maximum emergence percentage in Shiroudi cultivar with 99, 97 and 95% was obtained under weeding, coating the seeds with CaCl2 and KCl treatment, respectively. Also, the highest emergence rate was observed under the management of weeding and coating of potassium and calcium chloride seeds. Seed coating with CaCl2 and KCl substantially improved the stand establishment under drought and well-watered conditions owing to early completion of pre-germination metabolic activities during priming. In general, the results of mean comparison showed that weed management improved rice height compared to the control treatment. The results of this study attributed the increase in height to the effect of pretreatment on increasing the rate of emergence and better establishment of seedlings due to better plant use of related resources. The results showed that the maximum number of seeds per panicles with 137 were obtained in Khazar cultivar. The highest number of seeds per panicles with 127, 124 and 122 seeds was under weeding management and coating with CaCl2 and KCl, respectively. The results of cultivar effect showed that the maximum 1000-seed weight with 23.83 g was observed in Shiroudi cultivar. Also, 1000-seed weight in Khazar and Hashemi cultivars were 22.1 and 21.09 g, respectively. The reason for the increase in the number of 1000-seed weight in Shiroudi cultivar can be attributed to the genetic potential and physiological quality of this cultivar. Also, the results of weed management effect showed that coating rice seeds with calcium chloride and potassium chloride, chemical control and weeding increased 14, 26, 4 and 33% of grain yield and 4, 14, 2 and 18% of biological yield compared to control treatment, respectively. Improved yield by seed coating in direct seeded rice might be the result of enhanced dry matter partitioning toward the panicles that resulted in improved kernel yield.
Conclusion
According to the results of this study, seed coating treatments with CaCl2 and KCl in rice cultivars can increase rice yield by improving seedling characteristics. Therefore, farmers can be advised to use a simple and inexpensive crop management method to pretreated seeds with CaCl2 and KCl.
Introduction Water is the most frequently used carrier for herbicide applications. Thus, the physicochemical properties of water in spray mixture can affect the activity of herbicides. A high concentration of Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Fe3+... more
Introduction
Water is the most frequently used carrier for herbicide applications. Thus, the physicochemical properties of water in spray mixture can affect the activity of herbicides. A high concentration of Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Fe3+ and other cations in hard water can decrease herbicide efficacy. Weak acid herbicides that have been antagonized by one or more of the above cations include sethoxydim, 2,4-D, 2,4-DB, clethodim, imazethapyr, tralkoxydim, and glufosinate and glyphosate. Approaches to minimize hard water antagonism have included decreasing the spray carrier volume and using water-conditioning additives that have proven effective at ameliorating cation-caused antagonism include ammonium sulfate, ammonium nitrate, potassium phosphate, and citric acid. Passing hard water containing Ca2+, Mg2+ or Na+ through an external magnetic device results in the nucleation and crystallization of the respective carbonates. As a result, hard water can be softened for a period. Considering that the hardness of Iranian agriculture is increasing and adding an adjuvant to spray solution is also considered to be more environmental contamination, therefore, the physical conversion of hard water to soft water via its passage through a magnetic field is definitely a good alternative. The objectives of this research were to investigate the effect of adding CaCO3, MgCO3, Na2CO3, K2CO3, or Fe2(CO3)3 to distilled water on glyphosate efficacy to jimsonweed (Datura stramonium L.), and to compare the chemical hard water softening methods (ammonium sulfate, ammonium nitrate, citric acid and potassium phosphate) to a new physical hard water softening method (passing carrier through a magnetic field) to Reduce the incompatibility of hard water cations with glyphosate.
Materials and Methods
The seeds of jimsonweed were collected from plants in the fields of Qazvin city, Iran. They were stored in the dark at room temperature until use. Bioassays were conducted in a greenhouse located on the Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran. To increase seed germination before starting the experiment, the seeds were washed every 1 hour for 7 days to remove seed germination inhibitors. Twenty-five seeds were sown at 0.5 cm depth in 2 L plastic pots filled with a mixture of sand, clay loam soil, and peat (1:1:1 by volume). At cotyledon-leaf stage, the seedlings were thinned to four per pot. The pots were irrigated every four days with tap water. Treatments were sprayed at the four-leaf stage. The experiment was arranged as a completely randomized design with four replications as a factorial design with factors of carrier type (distilled water alone or containing 0.5 g L-1 of CaCO3, MgCO3, Na2CO3, K2CO3, or Fe2(CO3)3) and hard water softening method (ammonium sulfate, ammonium nitrate, potassium phosphate, citric acid, and passing through a magnetic field) and glyphosate dose (0, 12.81, 25.62, 51.25, 102.5 and 205 g a.i. ha-1). For magnetizing the carriers, it was passed 10 times through a magnetic treatment device modified from Rashed-Mohassel (30). The mixing order for treatment solutions was (i) adding CaCO3, MgCO3, Na2CO3, K2CO3, or Fe2(CO3)3 to distilled water, then (ii) adding/using water conditioning method, and after 15 min (iii) adding glyphosate. Then, the solutions were sprayed after about 5 min using a calibrated moving boom sprayer at 180 L ha-1 at 200 kPa with 11002 flat-fan nozzle. Shoots were harvested four weeks after treatment, dried for 48 h at 70°C, and dry weight was determined. The data of shoot dry weight were subjected to a non-linear regression analysis for determination of ED50 values (herbicide dose needed to obtain 50% reduction in dry weight) using the following logarithmic logistic dose-response model. The relative potency (R), the horizontal displacement between the two curves, was also calculated.

Results and Discussion
As judged by the relative potency values given in Table 1, the hard water softening methods decreased the ED50 values when distilled water was used as the carrier. Therefore, the activity of glyphosate against jimsonweed was significantly increased in the presence of the hard water softening methods. There were significant differences in performance among hard water softening methods as ammonium sulfate was the most effective method. Glyphosate activity was not decreased when applied in a K2CO3 solution but it was decreased when applied in Na2CO3, MgCO3, CaCO3 or Fe2(CO3)3 solutions. Except potassium phosphate which had only a significant effect at reducing the antagonism in the CaCO3 carrier; all hard water softening methods could restore glyphosate activity in hard water contaminated carriers to efficacy levels comparable to glyphosate alone in distilled water. There was no statistical difference in response between the magnetized carrier and ammonium sulfate when they were used in Na2CO3, MgCO3, or Fe2(CO3)3 solutions. It is reported that hard water softening methods may adjust the spray solution pH so that more active ingredient can transport across the leaf surface into the plant via ion trapping phenomenon. Ammonium sulfate was the most successful method to ameliorate the decreased glyphosate activity due to antagonism with Na+, Mg2+, Ca2+, or Fe3+ in the spray solution. By adding ammonium sulfate, the sulfate ion ( ) conjugates with the hard water cations and removes free cations from solution by forming cation-SO4 molecule, allowing ammonium ion ( ) to form glyphosate-NH4 molecule. A glyphosate-NH4 molecule diffuses across the cuticle easier and quicker. A mechanism for physical hard water softening method is illustrated in Fig. 2.

Conclusion
Although the physical hard water softening method was not effective as compared to some chemical hard water softening methods (ammonium sulfate and citric acid), from the point of view of economical and agricultural, applying the physical hard water softening method will be benefit because it needs no chemical.
Introduction The competition for limited resources is a common ecological interaction among animals. In most of insect parasitoid communities, different species compete for specific resources both in larval and adult stages.... more
Introduction
The competition for limited resources is a common ecological interaction among animals. In most of insect parasitoid communities, different species compete for specific resources both in larval and adult stages. Intraspecific competition play a role in the size, structure, stability of insect communities and even it determines the fitness of species. Moreover, understanding how competition influences on different insect species is essential for basic ecological studies and pest control issues. The outcome of competition between adult parasitoid insects depends on host finding, dispersal abilities, reproductive capacity, ability to fight, and physiological coordination with the host.While the outcome of competition in the larval stage can be influenced by differences in the growth rate of the parasitoid, the stage and physiological state of the attacked host, the order and the time intervals between oviposition and the evolutionary history of the species. Competition among larvae can affect the development of adult parasitoids because the surviving individual or winners might to pay high costs for competency due to quantitative and qualitative changes in host resources.

Materials and Methods
The current study was carried on to determine the effect of intraspecific competition on searching efficiency and oviposition strategy of Habrobracon hebetor Say on 4th instar larvae of Heliothis viriplaca (Lep.: Noctuidae) at seven competition and four adult density levels (1, 2, 3 and 4) of parasitoid wasps per the spring chickpea plant (c.v. Bivanij). All plants were grown under controlled climate conditions (25 ± 1 °C, and a light period of 16: 8 hours). Then, 10 fourth instar larvae of H. viriplaca per plant were released and allowed to feed and establish prior starting the experiments (about three hours). Then, fertile female wasps with different densities (2, 3 and 4) in separate treatments and a competitor free control treatment (one fertile female wasp per plant) introduced to each microcosm unit and after 24 and 48 hours, the number of parasitized and oviposited larvae on each host plant recorded, but the number of eggs oviposited on each host larvae recorded at the end of 48 hours. All eggs laid at each competitive level were kept separately until the emergence of adults to record sex ratio and mortality rate.

Results and Discussion
The results showed that, the searching efficiency of H. hebetor decreased with increasing the level of competition, so that, the highest searching efficiency was recorded after 48 hours, in control treatment and at a density of four parasitoid individuals as 0.178 ± 0.002 /hour and the lowest value at the level of 12 H. hebetor eggs per host larva and density of two parasitoid females as 0.023 ± 0.004/ hour. As the density levels of parasitoid increased, the searching efficiency was decreased to a density level of three, but then it increased at four individuals per chickpea plant. The interaction effect of density × competition was not significant, in other words, these two factors independently influenced on searching efficiency of H. hebetor. Time had a positive effect on searching efficiency so that, at all levels of competition and at different densities of parasitoid wasp, the difference was statistically significant. With increasing density of H. hebetor per plant, at all competition levels, the oviposition rate was increased, which means that the simultaneous presence of several parasitoid individuals does not have any negative effect on oviposition rate. Competition had a negative effect on the oviposition rate of H. hebetor, as the highest oviposition rate recorded at one individual and lowest competition level as 14.7 ± 2.1 eggs and the lowest rate occurred at four individuals per host plant and competition level of 12  parasitoid eggs as 6.4 ± 0.05 eggs. At all competition levels, regardless of density, sex ratio was not affected by competition and other factors sounds influential in this regard, however, the difference between the ratio of female to male population at competition levels of one and two was greater than other levels. Moreover, the mortality rate has been increased with increasing competition levels, so that the lowest mortality percentage occurred at the level of one and two and the highest at the competition levels of 10 and 12.

Conclusion
Given the significant differences in searching efficiency and other factors studied, it can be concluded that the number of competing larvae in a host affects the suitability and vigor of adult parasitoid wasps. However, it should be noted, that in some cases, competition does not directly affect searching capability, but instead, by reducing other factors, such as morphological characteristics (body size, ovary size, number and size of eggs, size of hind legs, wing size), and biological characteristics such as oviposition period will influence on the searching abilities of parasitoids indirectly.The study of H. hebetor parasitoid wasp foraging behavior showed that at high densities, it avoids competing with other conspecific individuals. Anyway, regarding the prevalency of competition among released natural enemies in greenhouses and fields, the study of this interaction from laboratory to fields is being recommended.
Introduction Iris spp. is reported to be affected by several viruses in the family Potyviridae including iris mild mosaic virus (IMMV), iris severe mosaic virus (ISMV), iris fulva mosaic virus, bean yellow mosaic virus (BYMV), turnip... more
Introduction
Iris spp. is reported to be affected by several viruses in the family Potyviridae including iris mild mosaic virus (IMMV), iris severe mosaic virus (ISMV), iris fulva mosaic virus,  bean yellow mosaic virus (BYMV), turnip mosaic virus (TuMV), ornithogalum mosaic virus (OrMV), narcissus latent virus (NLV), butterfly flower mosaic virus (BFMV), and gladiolus mosaic virus (tentative name). Narcissus latent virus (NLV) is a member of the genus Macluravirus in the family Potyviridae. It has non-enveloped flexuous filamentous virions of 657 nm long and 13 nm wide, which encapsidate a single-stranded, positive-sense RNA molecule of approximately 8,000 nt long. NLV is distributed widely throughout the major planting areas of Japan, New Zealand, and European countries. It is one of the most common viruses infecting narcissus, iris, gladiolus, and nerine, causing significant yield losses and quality deterioration in their bulbs and flowers. Due to the presence of asymptomatic infection of NLV in iris and narcissus, the relevance of its infection in host plants may be severely underrated. As Khorasan Razavi province is one of the major producing areas of ornamental plants in Iran, identification of this virus is a concern. In this study, we attempted to identify NLV infecting iris plants and compare Iranian NLV isolates with other sequences from different geographical regions to provide the first detailed information of phylogenetic characterization of this virus in Iran.
Materials and Methods
Iris leaf samples showing virus-like symptoms of leaf chlorosis and mosaic were collected from field-grown plants in Khorasan Razavi province. Total RNA was extracted from the field samples using Promega SV Total RNA Isolation Kit (USA). Reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) was performed using specific primer pair CPU-F (5΄-CATTACACCCGACCTGGAACT-3΄) and CPU-R (5΄-CCATTTCAGGGCATTGGAGGA-3΄), which were designed to amplify a 1066 bp fragment of the 3΄-region of NLV genome (encompassing partial NIb (25 nt), complete CP (894 nt), and partial 3'UTR (147 nt)). PCR products and DNA ladder were separated by agarose gel electrophoresis, visualized using DNA Green viewer staining, and photographed with ultraviolet-illumination. Amplified fragments of the expected size were purified, cloned into pTG19-T vector and bi-directionally sequenced. Obtained sequences were phylogenetically compared with the corresponding isolates available in the GenBank after multiple alignments. The phylogenetic tree was constructed based on the nucleotide sequences of the CP-UTR using the neighbor-joining method by MEGA11.

Results and Discussion
Amplification product (1066 bp) was obtained from five infected samples, but not from healthy samples. The most typical symptoms in positive samples were mosaic, and interveinal chlorosis. Three selected PCR positive samples were cloned into the pTG19-T vector and sequenced. BLASTn analysis of the sequenced data revealed that the PCR-amplified fragments belonged to NLV. Three selected isolates which are referred to as IR, IR2, and IR3 were deposited in GenBank. The previously identified and conserved amino acid sequence motifs described in CP of macluraviruses were present in Iranian CP sequences. The phylogenetic tree placed the NLV sequences into two distinct phylogroups I and II; the Iranian isolates clustered together with isolates from Poland, New Zealand, and United Kingdom into group II. Phylogenetic analysis showed that Iranian isolates shared 77.47 to 98.12% nucleotide sequence identity and 77.70-99.34% amino acid sequence identity with other isolates of NLV. Also, identity of these three isolates in the nucleotide and amino acid levels ranged between 97 to 97.84% and 97.38 to 99.02%, with each other, respectively. Iranian isolates showed the highest nucleotide sequence identity with NLV5_1 isolate (JX270766) from Poland (between 97.65 to 98.12 %) and the lowest with NLV3 isolate (JX270762) from Poland (between 77.47 to 77.95 %).

Conclusion
NLV is a major constraint to iris and narcissus production worldwide. The phylogenetic analysis showed a low correlation between genetic and geographic distances which further emphasizing the importance of the exchange and use of virus-free propagating organs in preventing the dissemination of this virus. It seems that contaminated vegetative organs from some European countries (e.g. Netherlands), which are the major producer and the largest exporters of flowers and ornamentals in the world, can play a significant role in the worldwide distribution of the virus. Identification and the use of more isolates are recommended for a better understanding of the genetic structure and variation of NLV populations on a large geographical scale. The data obtained in this study will be beneficial to improve control strategies for this virus in Iran.
Introduction Meloidogyne incognita is the most well-known root knot nematode, with more than 2000 host species. Integrated nematode management (INM) is recommended to manage the destructive plant parasitic nematode. Integrated management... more
Introduction
Meloidogyne incognita is the most well-known root knot nematode, with more than 2000 host species. Integrated nematode management (INM) is recommended to manage the destructive plant parasitic nematode. Integrated management is generally performed by using the maximum available management methods (at least two methods) and the minimum use of chemical nematicides to bring the pathogen population below the economic threshold. The use of resistant cultivars is of particular importance in integrated management, due to environmental compatibility, economic efficiency, and sometimes the impossibility of implementing other methods, especially in developing countries. Therefore, it is necessary to evaluate the resistance of the important barley plant (Hordeum vulgare) to prevent damage and also to investigate nematode interactions with it.
Materials and Methods
In the current study, the resistance of different barley cultivars (i.e., Nik, Nimrouz, and Zarjow) was evaluated based on plant growth factors (length, fresh, and dry weight of aerial part and roots) and nematode gall index at 60 days post inoculation. Then the activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and ascorbate peroxidase (APX) enzymes were measured on days 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4 days post inoculation.
Results and Discussion
Regarding the mean number of galls, the Nik cultivar showed a significant difference compared to Nimroz and Zarjow cultivars (P ≤ 0.05). However, no significant difference was observed between Nimroz and Zarjow cultivars. Based on plant growth factors, M. incognita nematode was found to have a negative effect on the aerial part length and weight and a positive effect on root weight. Evaluation of the gall index showed Nik is moderately susceptible, and Nimrouz and Zarjow are moderately resistant cultivars. SOD enzyme in Nik, Nimrouz, and Zarjow showed maximum activity in 2.72, 1.91, and 2.15 U mg-1 protein on the 4, 4, and 3 days post inoculation, respectively. The enzyme in Nik was determined to be 1.42 and 1.25 times higher than Nimrouz and Zarjow. There was a significant difference between 0, 1, and 2 with the 3 and 4 days of the infected samples in Nik (P ≤ 0.05). In the other cultivars, enzyme activity increased with a slight slope. CAT enzyme peaked in Nik, Nimrouz, and Zarjow at 0.204, 0.09, and 0.11 μmol min-1 mg-1 protein on the fourth-day post inoculation. In the Nik cultivar, unlike the other two cultivars, the enzyme increased more and had a steep slope from the second to the fourth day. In infected plants of Nimrouz, despite the gradual increase of enzyme, no significant difference was found between any of the days. APX enzyme peaked at 0.26, 0.27, and 0.24 μmol min-1 mg-1 protein in Nik, Nimrouz, and Zarjow on the fourth day, respectively. The activity of the above enzyme had an increasing trend in three cultivars. The maximum activity of this enzyme was at Nimrouz, which was determined to be 1.03 and 1.1 times higher than Nik and Zarjow, respectively. In this cultivar, the upward trend was rapid, although there was a significant difference between all-time points at the level of 0.05. In the current research, it was found that the invasion of the root knot nematode M. incognita reduces the growth of length, fresh and dry weight in the aerial part, reduces the length of the root but increases the fresh weight of it.
Conclusion
The hallmark of inducing pathogenicity in the sedentary root knot nematodes is the formation of special feeding cells named giant cells, which require controlling the expression of host genes and manipulation of plant hormones like auxin and cytokinin hormones. It is obvious that during the invasion of root knot nematodes and the formation of giant cells in host roots, the plant is weakened due to impaired transport of water and nutrients, and the host growth factors, especially in the aerial part, are reduced. However, due to hormonal disorders and the formation of galls, the weight of the roots increases. The higher expression of antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase, catalase, and ascorbate peroxidase in Nik possibly has occurred due to the compatible interaction, as a result of lack of necrosis and programmed cell death and to tolerate stress (nematode invasion). Less expression of SOD, CAT, and APX enzymes in Nimrouz and Zarjow cultivars possibly have occurred due to their moderate resistance to M. incognita invasion.
Introduction Rapeseed is one of the most important crops cultivated for oil extraction and has the highest annual growth rate (in terms of production) among the essential oilseeds in the world. Due to its slow growth rate, the rapeseed... more
Introduction
Rapeseed is one of the most important crops cultivated for oil extraction and has the highest annual growth rate (in terms of production) among the essential oilseeds in the world. Due to its slow growth rate, the rapeseed plant has little competitive ability against weeds in the early growing season, which causes it to be severely damaged by weed interference. Since the long-term presence of weeds in rapeseed could reduce its quality and yield, early weed control is essential to achieve economically acceptable yields.
Materials and Methods
In order to control broadleaf weeds in rapeseed fields, a factorial experiment based on a randomized complete block design with three replications was conducted in winter 2019 in Benvar Nazer region, Andimeshk county, Iran. The experimental factors included two types of rapeseed hybrids (Hayola 50 and Agamax) and clopyralid herbicide (1.5 L ha-1 recommended dose, EC30%, Aryashimi, Iran) application with a fixed dose of 1 lit ha-1 for all treatments along with oxadiazon herbicide (recommended dose of 3 L ha-1 for using in rice as pre-plant before the two leaved barnyard grass, EC12%, Shimagro company, Iran) at doses of 100, 175, and 200 ml ha-1, and oxadiargyl herbicide (recommended dose of 3-3.5 L ha-1 for using in rice as pre-emergence or at the beginning of weed emergence in transplanted rice, SC3%, Herbicide Production Company, Iran) with doses of 100, 125, and 150 ml ha-1. Weedy and weeding control (complete control by manual weeding) were considered as control treatments. Herbicides were applied by a 12 liter back sprayer equipped with a TJET 11003 nozzle, which was calibrated for spraying 200 liters per hectare, in the initial 2-leaf stage to the beginning of 4 true leaves for chemical control of weeds in the plots. The grass weeds were removed by hand. Broadleaf weeds were counted separately according to the weed species at before spraying, three and six weeks after spraying and were cut at the soil surface and dried at 70 °C in oven. Then, weed dry weight was measured with a digital scale 0.01 and the percentage reduction in density and dry weight of weeds were calculated. In addition, the amount herbicides used on rapeseed was visually assessed using the EWRS standard table. Then, yield and yield components of rapeseed including number of siliques, seed no. per silique, 1000-seed weight, seed yield, biological yield and harvest index were measured.
Results and Discussion
Results showed that the predominant weed species in the experimental plots included wild clover, queen anne᾿s lace, mallow, Anagalis spp., wild mustard, and field bindweed, which the highest frequency (31.29%) belonged to wild clover and the lowest frequency (1.03%) belonged to field bindweed. The ANOVA results showed that the reduction percentage of density and dry weight of weeds and seed yield were affected by experimental treatments; as the treatments of clopyralid + oxadiazon 100, clopyralid + oxadiazon 175, clopyralid + oxadiargyl 125 in Hyola50 hybrid and clopyralid + oxadiazon 175 in Agamax hybrid reduced the density and dry weight of weeds by 100%. While, the lowest reduction percentage of weed density and dry weight (44.74 and 55.33%, respectively) was observed in Agamax hybrid and clopyralid (1 L ha-1) treatment. Also, the highest and lowest herbicide injury on weeds were observed in clopyralid+oxadiazon 100 (9.67%) and clopyralid alone and combination of clopyralid+oxadiargyl 100 and 150 in Agamax hybrid (0%), respectively. The highest seed yield, biological yield and 1000-seed weight of rapeseed were observed in clopyralid+oxadiazon 200, oxadiargyl 125 and 150 (3377.6 kg ha-1, 11295 kg ha-1, and 3.27 g, respectively), and the lowest was observed in weedy control treatment (2064.2 Kg ha-1, 7458 Kg ha-1 and 2.87 g). 1000-seed weight is less affected by treatments and is a genetic trait. The highest and lowest number of seeds per silique under the influence of herbicide treatment were related to clopyralid+oxadiazone 175 and clopyralid+oxadiargyl 100 (23.33 and 18.17), respectively. An increase in the number of seeds per silique was observed with increasing the dose of herbicide oxadiazone in combination with clopyralid up to 175 ml ha-1. The highest number of siliques per plant was obtained in weeding treatment in Agamax hybrid with 189.33 silique per plant, which was significantly different from weedy control treatment. Also, the lowest number of weed control silique was obtained with Hayola 50 hybrid, which was not significantly different from clopyralid+oxadiazone 100 in Agamax hybrid.
Conclusion
According to the results, mixing herbicides is a solution to eliminate the competition of weeds with rapeseed and increase the yield so that the yield of up to 3.3 tons is obtained, which compared to clopyralide only as a control treatment. In general, the highest yield of rapeseed from plots treated with clopyralid+oxadiazon 200, oxadiargyl 125, and 150 were the best treatment in comparison with the applied treatments. The best treatment is the one in which rapeseed yield has been the highest. In addition, since clopyralid is a selective herbicide in rapeseed, it did not have sufficient efficacy due to poor control of important weeds such as wild mustard. It should also be noted that further testing of the above herbicide mixtures on rapeseed fields throughout the country is necessary in order to obtain the results that are the basis for recommending these mixtures in rapeseed.
Introduction Integrated weed control in medicinal plants is one of the most important components of sustainable production. The dill seed production could be affected mainly by weed interference because of low competitive ability of this... more
Introduction
Integrated weed control in medicinal plants is one of the most important components of sustainable production. The dill seed production could be affected mainly by weed interference because of low competitive ability of this medicinal plant against weeds. So, this study was conducted in order to evaluate the effect of different doses of trifluralin in integration with non-chemical weed control options including living mulch, straw mulch and one time hand weeding on weeds, yield components, grain and essential oil production of dill.
Material and Methods
The study was conducted in Research Field of Agriculture-Jahad in Khoda Afarin County in East Azarbaijan Iran in 2019 as factorial experiment based on randomized complete block design with three replications. The first factor was application of different rates of trifluralin at four levels including 0, 480, 720 and 960 g ai ha-1 of trifluralin herbicide and the second factor was different levels of non-chemical weed control consisted of planting the living mulch of fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.), planting the living mulch of bitter vetch (Vicia ervilla L.), application of wheat straw mulch, one time hand weeding 50 days after emergence of dill and control (without non-chemical weed control). Also the weed-free treatment during whole growth season was considered in the experiment.
Results and Discussion
The results indicated that the interaction effect of herbicide dose × non-chemical weed control method was significant (p ≤ 0.01) on weed density and biomass. At all non-chemical control levels, increasing the trifluralin dose reduced the weed density and the lowest weed density (2.33 Plant m-2) was observed in one time hand weeding and straw mulch treatments. The weed density at all non-chemical control levels decreased compared with that in without non-chemical control. Increasing the trifluralin dose decreased the weed biomass at all non-chemical control levels, and the lowest weed biomass was observed in one time hand weeding treatment + 960 g ai ha-1 of trifluralin (78 g m-2) that caused 86% reduction in weed biomass compared with control treatment. At all non-chemical control levels, the weed biomass decreased compared with that in without non-chemical control. Comparison of weed biomass among the different mulch treatments indicated that except in control (0 g ai ha-1 of trifluralin), the weed biomasses were not significantly different under all herbicide doses. The effect of non-chemical control level was significant on plant height, number of umbels per plant and 1000-grain weight of dill. The means comparison indicated that among the non-chemical weed control treatments the greatest plant height (97 cm), number of umbels per plant (31.8) and 1000-grain weight (192.8 g) were obtained in wheat straw mulch application. Also increasing the herbicide dose, improved the number of umbels per plant and 1000-grain weight of dill as the highest values were observed in 960 g ai ha-1 of trifluralin. The interaction effect of herbicide dose × non-chemical weed control method was significant on grain number per plant and grain yield of dill. At all non-chemical control levels, the grain number per plant enhanced by increasing the trifluralin dose. Comparing the non-chemical control treatment showed that the highest grain number per plant was observed in straw mulch application treatment and other non-chemical weed control treatments were not significantly different. The all non-chemical weed control treatments increased the grain number per plant compared with that in control treatment. By increasing the trifluralin dose under all non-chemical control treatments the grain yield of dill enhanced. Also the grain yield increased significantly at all non-chemical control treatments compared with those in without non-chemical control and the greatest grain yield of dill was observed in straw mulch application treatment + 960 g ai ha-1 of trifluralin (9842 kg ha-1) that indicated 6% reduction compared with weed free treatment. Also the grain yield in this treatment increased by 89.7% compared with that in without control and 0 g ai ha-1 of trifluralin (weed-infested treatment). The grain yield of dill in one time hand weeding treatment was higher than those in fenugreek and bitter vetch living mulch treatments. Also in living mulch treatments there were no significant difference between dill grain yield of 480 and 720 g ai ha-1 of trifluralin. The effects of herbicide dose and non-chemical weed control treatment were significant on essential oil content and yield of dill. The essential oil content and yield increased by increasing the herbicide dose and the highest essential oil content (1.46%) and yield (110.34 kg ha-1) were observed in 960 g ai ha-1 of trifluralin. The essential oil content and yield incresead at all non-chemical control treatments compared with that in without control treatment. The highest essential oil content (1.38%) was obtained in straw mulch treatment that was not significantly different with that in one time hand weeding (1.35%) treatment. The highest essential oil yield (100.6 kg ha-1) was obtained in straw mulc treatment that was not significantly different with that in one time hand weeding (96.43 kg ha-1).
Conclusion
The all non-chemical weed control treatments decreased the weed density and biomass but the hand weeding and straw mulch treatments showed higher efficacy in weed biomass reduction compared with living mulch treatments (fenugreek and bitter vetch). The grain and essential oil production of dill in straw mulch and one time hand weeding treatments were greater than those in fenugreek and bitter vetch living mulch treatments. Therefore, the straw mulch and one time hand weeding could be recommended in integration with reduced doses of trfluralin for sustainable weed management of dill.
Introduction Broomrape (Phelipanche aegyptiaca) is one of the most important plant parasitic species which causes significant yield loss of different crops by colonizing roots and uptaking nutrients from the host plants. Haustoria... more
Introduction
Broomrape (Phelipanche aegyptiaca) is one of the most important plant parasitic species which causes significant yield loss of different crops by colonizing roots and uptaking nutrients from the host plants. Haustoria attachment stage is the most important stage to study molecular mechanism of plant-parasite interaction. Identifying key genes in haustoria attachment stage may reveal novel strategies to control Broomrape. Transcriptome studies by Next-generation (high throughput, deep) sequencing have become an important tool in the molecular biology of plants in recent years. All stage-specific RNA-seq data are available on the plant parasite genome project database (http://ppgp.huck.psu.edu). Differential gene expression in haustoria attachment stage can detect candidate parasitism genes and contribute to understanding molecular basis of plant-parasite interaction. This information may reveal novel genetic strategies such as HIGS to control Phelipanche aegyptiaca efficiently.
Materials and Methods
Analysis of Transcriptome data from the plant parasite genome project database (http://ppgp.huck.psu.edu) at Haustoria attachment stage and imbibed seed stage  revealed 391 gene transcripts with differential expression in these stages (unpublished data). Among these transcripts, four transcripts with unknown functions were detected with a high fold change in expression in the haustoria attachment stage. In order to predict possible roles of these transcripts in broomrape-host interactions, we used genome walking method to extend these transcripts. DNA was extracted from Phelipanche aegyptiaca stem using CTAB method. The quantity and quality of DNA samples were determined using the NanoDrop and agarose gel electrophoresis. DNA was digested by four restriction enzymes, DraI, EcoRV, StuI, PvuII. Four DNA libraries were purified using SDS protocol and ligated to GenomeWalker Adaptor (GenomeWalker Adaptor 1 and GenomeWalker Adaptor 2). Gene specific primers (GSPs) were designed using Primer3plus for Oa548, Oa3391, Oa1635, Oa424 transcripts. Primary PCR was done using gene-specific primer 1 (GSP1) and adaptor primer 1 (AP1). 1 µl of each primary PCR were diluted into 49 µl of deionized water. Diluted primary PCR products were used as template for Secondary PCR. Primary PCR was done to amplify the unknown sequence using gene-specific primer 2 (GSP2) and adaptor primer 2 (AP2). Secondary PCRs desired bands were extracted form agarose gel using Genet Bio k-8000 kit. Extracted products were ligated to pTG19-T vector. Recombinant vectors were cloned to Escherichia coli competent cells using heat shock procedure and then cultured on LB plates. Colonies that contain recombinant vectors were detected using blue-white screening. Colony PCR was done to confirm the presence of inserted sequences. Selected colonies were incubated in 37C in LB media containing 100 microgram per ml Ampicillin. Plasmid extraction was done by Silica procedure. After sequencing by M13F and M13R, complete sequences were assembled using CAP contig assembly software. Fgenesh online software was used to predict gene structure by selecting Arabidopsis thaliana as organism. Gene prediction was done by AUGUSTUS. Complete sequences were more analyzed using Blast, CDD, Phobius prediction, HMMER, InterProScan.
Results and Discussion
In this study we successfully extended the genomic sequences for two candidate transcript that showed increase expression in attachment stage. The sequence of Oa1635 and Oa424 transcripts was extended from the end of the 5`using the genome-walking method to determining the DNA sequence of unknown flank genomic regions and study the role of these sequences in plant-parasite interaction. Using this technique, 587bp and 165bp of new DNA sequences were obtained for Oa424 and Oa163, respectively. Analysis of homology using BLASTX algorithm for Oa424 showed 71.57% similarity (e-value: 2e-41) with unknown protein (XP_011081407.1) containing the transposase domain. Also, the results of CDD tool predicted the DDE_Tnp_ISL3 domain in position between 257 and 466 bp (e-value: 7.31e-14). For Oa1635 transcript, the results of homology analysis using BLASTX algorithm showed 72.73% (2e-9) similarity with retrovirus-related polyprotein sequence from transposon tnt 1-94 (GFP84907.1). As the regulatory function of proteins with mutant-like transposase domains, the two transcripts Oa424 and Oa1635 may play a key role in haustoria development and plant-parasitic interaction. Signal peptides have observed in these sequences suggesting that these transcripts encodes secretory proteins from haustoria to plant-parasite interaction.
Conclusion
Bioinformatics analysis on extended sequence, identified transposase domains which may have regularity role in parasitic process such as haustoria development or penetration. These genes may play important roles in plant-parasite interaction and developing molecular strategies to control this parasitic plant.
Introduction Cropping history can affect our knowledge about the compositions and diversity of weed communities in the soil. Weed Species composition and density are influenced by farming practices and vary from field to field and among... more
Introduction
Cropping history can affect our knowledge about the compositions and diversity of weed communities in the soil. Weed Species composition and density are influenced by farming practices and vary from field to field and among areas within fields. Plants that escape control and produce seeds within the field can be considered as a major source of seed entering the soil. Crop rotation is an effective weed management tool which can change weed distribution pattern by increasing selection pressures. Two types of rotation including corn-winter wheat and fallow-winter wheat are the most common cropping systems in arid and semi-arid areas of Iran. The multiple tillage operations can affect the vertical distribution, germination and emergence of weed seeds in the soil. Weed seed bank density, species composition and diversity will change when crop management practices are altered.
Materials and Methods
A field experiment was conducted to evaluate the effects of corn-wheat and fallow-wheat crop rotations on weed seed bank dynamics and seedling population during 2016-2018 growing season at Shiraz University. The fields divided into 10 by 10 meter grids. Soil samples were taken from 0-15 and 15-30 cm depths by soil sampler (auger) with 10 cm diameter. These samples collected after seedbed preparation and before crop sowing from 144 points. The samples of each depth were mixed together, placed in black plastic bags, and transferred to the laboratory. Then, 250g of the total soil was weighed and separated. These samples was placed in silk bags and washed with low water pressure. Finally, weed seeds dried, identified and counted to the level of species using a binocular stereomicroscope. Those seeds that were resistant to forceps pressure assumed as healthy seeds. Weed seedling population were calculated using a quadrat before and after application of herbicide at the same points were seed bank was carried out. Geostatistics technique was used to investigate density and spatial distribution of weed seedlings in two different crop rotations.
Result
The highest frequency of weed seed bank belongs to Portalaca oleracea, Amaranthus retroflexus, Chenopodium album and Lamium amplexicaule. Relative density of P. oleracea and A. retroflexus seeds increased in corn-wheat rotation compared with fallow-wheat. The results showed that weed seed frequency was significantly affected by crop rotation and depth of plowing. As corn-wheat rotation had 33% increasing and fallow-wheat 19.44% decreasing of weed seed in 15-30 cm soil depth. The size of the total weed seed bank in corn-wheat caused a greater seed accumulation in the surface layer of the soil (0-15 cm). Weed seed density in corn-wheat rotation increased 89.79% and 62.85% in 0-15 and 15-30 cm, respectively during two years. Shannon diversity index increased by 12% in corn-wheat and decreased by 5.4% in fallow-wheat compared with the first year. Margalf index of corn-wheat rotation at 0-15 and 15-30 cm of soil depths decreased 33.70% and 38.25%, respectively, compared to the fallow-wheat rotation in the first year. Sorenson similarity index of corn-wheat and fallow-wheat at 0-15 and 15-30 soil depths was 0.82% and 0.80% during two years. The slope of linear regression also indicates that fallow-wheat weed seed bank (0.79) decreased more than corn-wheat rotation (0.47). Spatial distribution of weed seedlings showed that there is a large similarity in distribution patterns of total weed population between before and after herbicide application in two different rotations during the second year. However, distribution pattern of seedlings in corn-wheat rotation at the first year herbicide application was different after application of herbicide. Therefore, herbicide application can affect spatial distribution and number of weed seedling species.
Conclusion
Corn-wheat rotation as a high input level cropping system with deep tillage increases the size of the weed seed bank, especially in the soil surface layer (0-15 cm). While fallow-wheat rotation as a low input level cropping system causes a decreasing in weed seed bank dynamics, increasing in the diversity and richness of the seed bank and improving the soil structure by wheat residual on the soil during fallow system. The results of this study will be valuable in aiding the prediction of likely weed infestations in rotation systems. This ability to predict the size of weed seed bank, pouplation, diversity and emergence would also provide valuable input to population dynamics models that can be used in weed management.
Introduction The idea of sustainable agriculture has been considered recently due to increasing knowledge and concerns about the destructive effects of chemical pesticides. Biological control is an ecologically based pest management... more
Introduction
The idea of sustainable agriculture has been considered recently due to increasing knowledge and concerns about the destructive effects of chemical pesticides. Biological control is an ecologically based pest management strategy with an important role in achieving sustainable agriculture. The success of this beneficial method closely depends on taxonomy, since accurate identification of pests and their natural enemies has a great importance in biocontrol project’s achievement. The gall midges of the genus Feltiella are cosmopolitan species known as highly effective predators of tetranychid mites. Despite the high potential of Feltiella species as a biological control agent, F. acarisuga is the only species commercially available among eleven species of the genus. These predators are difficult to distinguish from each other because of the high similarity and low information about them. Comprehensive taxonomic studies are needed to identify promising species for the control of tetranychid mites. The aim of this study is to determine the status of the native Feltiella species in Iran emphasizing their molecular characteristics.
Materials and Methods
The native predatory gall midges larvae and pupae were collected periodically from the spider mites colony on various host plants (Urtica dioica, Lactuca scariola and Rubus sp.) in countrysides around Mashhad during 2018-2019 and maintained in a growth chamber (LD 16:8, 21±1°C, RH 75±5%) until emerging adults. Adults were preserved in ethanol for further analysis and identified morphologically based on male genitalia and other structures used in taxonomic treatments of the genus. The molecular genetic analysis was included DNA extraction using the Chelex 100 method, PCR amplification of the mitochondrial COI gene using the LCO/HCO universal primer pair, sequencing the gene, and matching the sequence with those of the related species using BLAST. Nucleotide divergence between sequences was estimated by Maximum Composite Likelihood model and by the Pairwise deletion method in MEGA-X software. Intra- and interspecific distances were calculated using ExcaliBAR software and their frequency distribution histogram was plotted using Excel software. The sequence data were analyzed through the neighbor-joining method using MEGA-X software. Evolutionary distances for the NJ method were computed by Kimura’s two-parameter distances. The resulting tree was subjected to bootstrap analysis with 1000 pseudoreplications. The cecidomyiid genus Endaphis was employed as an outgroup taxon to construct the phylogenetic tree.
Results and Discussion
Based on morphological studies, specimens of the native acarivorous gall midges from various localities in Mashhad were identified as Feltiella acarisuga Vallot. In spite of the morphological result, the DNA sequence of the native species was relatively different from the corresponding sequence of F. acarisuga available in GenBank. The sequence match between the two species was 92.74% in maximum. The match with F. acarivora sequences was also low (maximum 91.84%). Whereas the BLAST results of the indigenous species sequence matched the corresponding sequence of F. tetranychi with more than 99% homology. Comparing the nucleotide differences between the specimens of the present species with F. acarisuga and F. tetranychi also showed that our Feltiella is a distinct species from F. acarisuga, despite of morphological identification. In the histogram of nucleotide distances, intra and inter specific distances in the COI gene overlapped with each other which were related to the nucleotide distances between individuals of F. tetranychi species in the gene bank and individuals of the species collected in the present study. Based on the neighbor-joining tree inferred from partial sequences of the COI gene related to Feltiella species, Iranian indigenous species and F. tetranychi species were in the same ancestor, while individuals of F. acarisuga species were in separate ancestors from the native gall midges. Therefore, according to our molecular studies, the specimens of the native gall midges of Mashhad were F. tetranychi. The possible interpretation for the difference between morphological and molecular identification results in this study is the difficulty of distinguishing the two species from each other, due to their great morphological similarity. F. tetranychi has been mentioned as a possible synonym for F. acarisuga so far, because of the high morphological resemblance. Personal correspondence with international experts revealed that there are two taxa named F. tetranychi, one named by Rubsaamen and introduced as one of the synonymous names of F. acarisuga, and the other named by Kieffer which is an unknown species and mentioned as a possible synonym of F. acarisuga. To prove or disprove the hypothesis whether F. tetranychi is synonymous with F. acarisuga or completely separate from it, it is necessary to study voucher specimens of Feltiella species. Studying further populations of the gall midges on various hosts around the world through sequencing more than one molecular marker is also needed.
Conclusion
In this study specimens of the native gall midges were identified as Feltiella acarisuga Vallot based on morphological identification, while molecular studies identified them as F. tetranychi. Since molecular identification is more accurate than morphological one, the present study can show how different the indigenous species is from the well-known commercial species F. acarisuga. The present native species probably has little ability to settle in artificial and manipulated environments despite of its activity in the nature of Mashhad. Its usage as a biological control agent for tetranychid mites requires further bio-ecological studies in the laboratory and its genetic comparison with known species in the world.
Introduction The green peach aphid Myzus persicae (Sulzer) (Hemiptera: Aphididae) is one of the severe pests of bell pepper Capsicum annuum L. in the greenhouse. Ladybird, Hippodamia variegata (Goeze), is an important general predator in... more
Introduction
The green peach aphid Myzus persicae (Sulzer) (Hemiptera: Aphididae) is one of the severe pests of bell pepper Capsicum annuum L. in the greenhouse. Ladybird, Hippodamia variegata (Goeze), is an important general predator in both larval and adult stages to various aphid species, including, M. persicae. In this study, the effect of nutritional interaction among plant-herbivore-natural enemy under the influence of foliar application of iron, zinc, copper and manganese in bell pepper on the activity of digestive enzymes of the third and fourth instar larvae of H. variegata fed on M. persicae was examined.
Materials and Methods
The experiments were performed as a completely randomized design with four replicates per treatment during 2020-2021 in the greenhouse and laboratory of the Department of Plant Protection, College of Agriculture, Lorestan University. The foliar application of micronutrient carried out at four-to six-leaf stage with a certain amount of each micronutrient fertilizer. Then, sufficient number of the third and fourth instar larvae of H. variegata were randomly collected from each treatment and replication. The samples transferred to 1 mL of distilled water, and homogenized with a hand pestle. Then, the samples centrifuged at 13000 g for 15 min at 4°C. The supernatants as the enzyme source were collected and reserved at −20°C for starting biochemical assays. The activity of digestive enzymes was measured according to the standard protocols.
Results
The results showed that the amount of digestive enzymes activity of the third and the fourth instar larvae of H. variegata fed on M. persicae reared on the different micronutrient treatments were higher than the control treatment. The total protease and the trypsin activity were higher in the third instar larvae H. variegata reared on manganese (0.583 and 19.296 U/mg protein) and iron (0.574 and 18.426 U/mg protein), respectively. The highest and lowest activity of chymotrypsin, aminopeptidase and carboxypeptidase were found in the third instar larvae in manganese (15.518, 8.95 and 7.536 U/mg protein) and control (7.353, 2.139 and 2.665 U/ mg protein) treatments, respectively. The highest (18.952) and lowest (9.139 U/ mg protein) elastase activity were found in the third instar larvae on iron and control, respectively. The higher activity of α-amylase (25.20 U/mg protein) was observed in the third instar larvae of H. variegata in iron treatments then the other treatments. The total protease (0.183 U/ mg protein) and the chymotrypsin (10.396 U/ mg protein) of the fourth instar larvae predatory had higher activities with iron treatment and these enzymes had lower activities on control (0.036 and 6.763 U/ mg protein) and copper (0.059 and 6.655 U/ mg protein) treatments. The highest activity of trypsin and aminopeptidase were observed in the fourth instar larvae of H. variegata fed on M. persicae reared on iron (6.893 and 2.317 U/ mg protein) and the highest activity of elastase was found on iron (2.486) and zinc (2.251 U/ mg protein, respectively). Also, the lowest activity of trypsin, aminopeptidase and elastase were found on control. The carboxypeptidase activity was higher in the fourth instar larvae H. variegata fed on the all micronutrients than the control. Also, the highest and lowest activity of α-amylase were observed in the fourth instar larvae H. variegata fed on micronutrients of copper and iron (17.64 and 15.04 U/ mg protein) and control (9.160 U/mg protein), respectively.
Discussion
The results showed that the amount of digestive enzymes activity of the third and the fourth instar larvae of H. variegata fed on M. persicae reared on different micronutrient treatments were higher than the control treatment.
Based on the results, the foliar application of plants with micronutrient fertilizers has a positive effect on the performance of predator of H. variegata through nutritional interaction and improving of the growth quality. Thus, the quality of host plants, as the first level of nutrition, has an important effect on the physiological characteristics of the predator on the third level of nutrition and show the positive effect of prey nutrients on the physiological performance of H. variegata that can be used in M. persicae management programs.
Conclusion
Using different micronutrient fertilizers along with biological control agents such as ladybird H. variegata could be effective in integrated management programs of M. persicae through the growth quality improvement of the host plants.
Introduction Noctuidae species are herbivores as caterpillars and some of them are most destructive crop pests. Moreover, they role as pollinators and prey in ecosystem. Early researches on Noctuidae of Iran were published more than 150... more
Introduction
Noctuidae species are herbivores as caterpillars and some of them are most destructive crop pests. Moreover, they role as pollinators and prey in ecosystem. Early researches on Noctuidae of Iran were published more than 150 years ago. In recent two decades, Iranian researchers investigated the Noctuidae fauna of Iran and published several articles on different subfamilies. The subfamily Xyleninae may be paraphyletic and defined by plesiomorphic character states. Xyleninae in classic taxonomy is defined by the valva of male genitalia which is not as much constricted below the cucullus at the distal end of the clasper. The cuculus usually is expanded and bears a corona of stout setae. The ampulla is small and usually finger-like, except in Xylenina. Dorsal surface of saculus is usually irregular in direction to the base. Vesica is often short and tube-like or triangular with few basal cornuti and an elongated patch of spines on the apical half of the vesica. In female genitalia, the ductus bursae is short and heavily sclerotized; and the appendix bursae is small and inconspicuous or absent. It is worth mentioning that Lepidoptera species are one of the important elements of Zagros mountain ranges which dominated by oak forests. Their larvae are important leaf-eaters of oak plants. Therefore, the aim of this research was determining the moths’ fauna of Xyleninae subfamily belonging to Noctuidae in Zagros Mountains of Khuzestan and Ilam provinces. 
Materials and Methods
Numerous night samplings were done to study the fauna of Xyleninae subfamily (Lep.: Noctuidae) in Zagros Mountains in the provinces of Khuzestan and Ilam during 2018-2019. Sampling was performed by light traps powered by 12 volt batteries and 8 watt UVB light tubes. Sampling areas were two locations in Khuzestan province namely Imamzadeh Abdollah village in Baghmalek (31°22'24"N, 50°07'51"E, 1407 m and 31°23'10"N, 50°09'29"E, 2118 m) and Shelal village in Andika (32°16'19"N, 49°33'07"E, 954 m and 32°19'10"N, 49°35'06"E, 1474 m) as well as two locations in Ilam province namely Kabir-Kouh in Abdanan (33°02'57"N, 47°18'04"E, 1215 m and 33°03'53"N, 47°18'40"E, 1730 m) and Protected Area of Manesht and Ghelarang (33°34'47"N, 46°33'52"E, 1719 m and 33°34'33"N, 46°36'15"E, 2215 m). The specimens and genitalia slides were deposited in the Insect and Mite Collection of Ahvaz (IMCA), Plant Protection Department, Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz.
Results and Discussion
A total of 28 species belonging to 19 genera of Xyleninae were collected and identified. Among them, 9 and 15 species were new to the fauna of Khuzestan and Ilam provinces, respectively. Furthermore, Dichonia pinkeri (Kobes, 1973) is newly recorded from the fauna of Iran. Notes on the bionomy and distribution of the collected species as well as diagnostic characters and illustrations of wing patterns and genitalia for the D. pinkeri were presented. According to the results, 9 species have not been recorded in the previous investigations in Khuzestan province. These species are as follows; Caradrina boursini, Hoplodrina ambigua, Polyphaenis monophaenis, Apamea syriaca fuscorhoda, Sesamia sp., Atethmia centrago, Evisa schawerdae, Leucochlaena muscosa, Pseudenargia deleta. 15 out of 17 collected species in Ilam were new for the fauna of this province. Because this province was less explored previously for Noctuidae fauna. This indicates that we are still far from a complete provincial list of the Noctuidae in Iran. It needs more samplings especially in area and times which less explored already and using different methods such as bait traps. We didn’t present the results on Agrochola species here and will treat them separately. 13 species were collected in both studied provinces, among which two species Hoplodrina ambigua and Polyphaenis monophaenis were new for the fauna of Khuzestan and Ilam. This implies that habitat of such species are Zagros areas including oak forest vegetations and their distribution range may be further expanded in Zagros range. Comparing to the results of Esfandiari et al. (2011) on the noctuid fauna of sugarcane plantations in Khuzestan province, only Spodoptera exigua and Caradrina clavipalpis out of their 9 Xyleninae species were recorded in the present study. This is because of semidesert climate in sugarcane farms which differs from climate and land cover of our sampling areas. It is necessary to investigate the noctuid fauna, complete the checklists and provide identification catalogues for Iran. Also, larval stages and food plants must be studied in each area. Furthermore, we need local taxonomic revisions in some groups.
Introduction Chemical fungicides are widely used as effective control agents on a great diversity of fungal plant diseases. However, their excessive use, causes environmental pollution and health problems. Biological control as an... more
Introduction
Chemical fungicides are widely used as effective control agents on a great diversity of fungal plant diseases. However, their excessive use, causes environmental pollution and health problems. Biological control as an environmentally friendly method can be a good alternative for chemical fungicides. Trichoderma is one of the antagonistic fungi with rapid adaptation to a wide variety of habitats. Trichoderma harzianum is a powerful agent for biocontrol of plant pathogens. It also can be used as a plant growth stimulant. However, its efficacy can be affected by biotic and abiotic factors, and encapsulation has been used to maximize its efficacy. Encapsulation process provides a protective barrier around the biocontrol agent, so the harmful external factors such as pH, humidity, and ultraviolet radiation do not damage its action. Encapsulation of the bioactive agents has been developed in recent years as a new potential tool for ecological and sustainable plant production. Encapsulation in biopolymer matrices has been recognized as an effective method for controlled release of a bioactive agent used for plant protection. Chitosan, the deacetylated derivative of chitin polysaccharide is one of the most important biopolymers that is widely used in biological and medical sciences especially for encapsulating essential oils and extracts due to its biocompatibility, low toxicity and biodegradability into safe byproducts. In this study, antifungal effects of nano capsulated Trichoderma extract (NCTE) and Trichoderma extract (TE) against Macrophomina phaseolina have been investigated.
Materials and Methods
The nanocapsules were prepared by ionic gelation method. This is one of the most advantageous techniques for the production of nanocapsules. This technique is easy to perform and avoids the use of organic solvents. The biocompatible and biodegradable polymer, chitosan, was used as a capsule coating agent. After extraction of T. harzianum secondary metabolites, encapsulation process was carried out. Tripolyphosphate was used as cross-linking agent in the encapsulation process. The surface morphology of the nanoparticles was considered using Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy (FE-SEM). The mean particle sizes of the prepared nanoparticles were measured by Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS) technique. For consideration of the antifungal effects of nano encapsulated Trichoderma extract (NCTE) and Trichoderma extract (TE) against Macrophomina phaseolina, strile potato dextrose agar (PDA) containing different concentrations of NCTE and TE were prepared. After 5 days, colony diameter of the pathogen was measured in all treatments. The inhibitory effect was calculated compared with the control. Data were statistically analyzed by SAS software.
Results and Discussion
The obtained results indicated that the prepared nanoparticles were spherical in shape and the average size was equal to 77.91 nm with poly dispersity index (PDI) 0.23554. PDI value indicated the physical stability of the nanoparticles and prevented aggregation of the particles. Antifungal effects of NCTE and TE were observed in all treatments, however nanocapsules contains Trichoderma extract were more effective than Trichoderma extract. In each treatment containing TE and NCTE, maximum inhibitory effect was related to concenteration of 30 percent. In consideration of ihibition percent of NCTE and TE on M. phaseolina within 5 days, it was found that on the first and second days, inhibitory effect of TE was more than NCTE. However, on the third, fourth and fifth days, there were no statistically significant difference between treatments in TE while in NCTE, a significant increasing was observed. The reason for the high inhibition percent in TE treatment in the first and second days was related to rapid release of active ingredients in the culture medium and the passage of time had no effect on improving its yield. According to the results in this research, it can be concluded that chitosan nanoparticles will be a good carrier for Trichoderma extract encapsulation. It also improves their antifungal activity against M. phaseolina.
Conclusion
Nano-encapsulation of the bioactive compounds enhances physical stability, protects them from oxidation process, controlling their release, improves water dispersion of hydrophobic compounds and enhances their bioactivity efficacy. In this study, nano encapsulation of Trichoderma extract, increased its antifungal effects over time. Nano encapsulated particles containing antagonistic fungi were able to control the pathogenic fungus more effectively and in a longer period of time due to the controlled release of the fungal extract. Results showed that antifungal efficiency of T. harzianum was increased by nano encapsulation procedure. Since chitosan is a biodegradable polymer without any harms for safety, this technique can be suggested as a good candidate for biological control. Our future investigations are directed to test nanocapsules simultaneously loaded with biological agents on M. phaseolina under greenhouse and field conditions.
Introduction One of the most important diseases of cucumber is cucumber stem and root rot by agent Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. radicis-cucumerinum. The use of resistance inducers, which on the one hand activate the plant's defense... more
Introduction
One of the most important diseases of cucumber is cucumber stem and root rot by agent Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. radicis-cucumerinum. The use of resistance inducers, which on the one hand activate the plant's defense mechanisms before confronting the pathogen and on the other hand do not pose environmental risks, has been considered by researchers in recent years. Recently, the use of sodium silicate as a potential activator of acquired resistance is being developed. Sodium silicate plays an important role not only in systemic acquired resistance but also in the expression of genetic resistance and stimulates the production of pathogen-related proteins (markers of systemic acquired resistance). The use of sodium silicate increases the tolerance of plants to environmental stresses and increases the quality and quantity of agricultural products. Hence it modulates the time and amount of plant defense responses and acts as a secondary messenger in induced systemic resistance.The effect of sodium silicate was investigated in order to induce defense reactions in cucumber cultivars and control the disease.
Materials and Methods
First, different concentrations of sodium silicate were applied on the growth of the pathogen in the laboratory. The effect of different concentrations of sodium silicate on pathogen growth was tested by mixing with culture medium. Different concentrations of sodium silicate (1, 2, 4 mM) are each combined in 100 ml of PDA culture medium and poured into 9 cm culture dishes. The percentage of sodium silicate inhibition on fungi is calculated according to the following formula: N = A-B / A. The effects of different concentrations of sodium silicate were applied in the soil on cucumber in the greenhouse. At time intervals of 0, 48, 72 and 96 hours after inoculation with pathogen, sampling of treated seedlings was performed to measure secondary metabolites and enzymatic activity. Disease severity, growth factors, production of secondary metabolites and activity of defense enzymes in cucumber plant and thus disease control were evaluated. Disease severity and growth factors were studied in a completely randomized design and Biochemical factors in a completely randomized design with factorial arrangement in which the main factors are the applied treatments and the sub-factors are the sampling times with three replications.
Results and Discussion
Sodium silicate showed a direct antifungal effect on fungal growth after 5 days and by increasing its concentration up to 4 mM caused a significant increase in antifungal effects. A significant decrease in colony diameter compared to the control was observed only at concentrations of 2 and 4 mM . This effect was observed as termination the growth of fungi at 72 hours after cultivation of fungi in culture medium containing sodium silicate. This effect remained stable with increasing incubation time. Fusarium fungi are root pathogens and reduce the absorption of water and minerals and clog the vessels, thus directly affecting the growth parameters in the roots and green parts of the plant. Infected control compared to healthy control showed a significant decrease in all growth parameters measured. Disease severity and growth factors were significantly affected by the effects of sodium silicate at a probability level of 1%. Application of sodium silicate in all concentrations had favorable results in significantly reducing the symptoms of the disease. Application of sodium silicate in diseased plants improved growth parameters. The mean value of growth parameters in different treatments and their treatment grouping based on LSD test is done at 5% probability level. Based on the results of this study, a decrease in chlorophyll and carotenoids and an increase in phenolic compounds and antioxidant enzymes and proline were observed in infected control plants compared to healthy controls. In this study, in the presence of sodium silicate in diseased plants, the amounts of pigments, phenol, flavonoids, anthocyanins, proline, protein and the activity of oxidative enzymes were significantly increased compared to the infected control.
Conclusion
According to the results, sodium silicate had direct antifungal effects in culture medium. In addition, a reduction in disease severity was observed in plants treated with sodium silicate in the greenhouse. Sodium silicate can be used as a chemical stimulant of plant defense and plant growth enhancer, for effective protection of cucumber plant against disease. Therefore, induction of resistance has found its place as a new technology for controlling plant diseases and its effect has been proven in laboratories and some farms.
Introduction One of the most important problems facing modern agriculture is soil born plant pathogens control, especially root-knot nematodes. Chemical control, crop rotation and using resistance cultivar are common methods in control... more
Introduction
One of the most important problems facing modern agriculture is soil born plant pathogens control, especially root-knot nematodes. Chemical control, crop rotation and using resistance cultivar are common methods in control of most plant pathogens; however, there are low efficacy in control of root-knot nematodes regarding host wide range, long-term survival ability in soil and plant residual even in absence of host. One of the new methods in the management of root-knot nematodes is resistance induction in host using chemical compounds and microorganisms.  In this method there are not any side effect. The aim of this study was to investigate the effectiveness and mechanisms involved in induced resistance by three chemical compounds (Hexanoic acid, Thiamin and Riboflavin) accompanied by Trichoderma harzianum BI in tomato plants against Meloidogyne javanica. The objectives of this study were addressed by monitoring the activity of peroxidase, polyphenol oxidase, catalase, phenylalanine ammonia lyase, accumulation of total phenolic compounds and nematode disease indexes.
Materials and methods
This study was conducted in the Faculty of Agriculture, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad and was performed with susceptible cultivar to root knot nematode (Early Urbana). 2-4 leaf stage tomato seedlings were transferred to 3 Liter pots filled with 2 liter sterile soil and maintained under greenhouse condition to the end of experiment. 2000 Meloidogyne javanica J2 larvae (N) were added to each pot. Tomato plants were treated with Trichoderma harzianum BI (TH) with a population of 1×107 spores/mL, Hexanoic acid (HX), thiamine (TI) and riboflavin (RB) with a concentration of 20 mM. Distilled water was used as control treatment. Sampling was performed at specific time points from each pot and the samples were transferred to the laboratory. Enzyme extract was extracted from tomato roots to assay the Peroxidase (POD), Poly phenol oxidase (PPO), Catalase (PAL) and Phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL) enzyme activity. Also total phenol content and nematode pathogenicity indexes were measured at the end of the growing season.
Results and Discussion
Based on the results, the highest POD and PPO enzyme activities were measured in TH + HX + N, TH + RB + N and TH + TI + N treatments, respectively, at a time point of 72 hours after treatment. The highest CAT enzyme activity was also recorded in the treatments TH + HX + N, TH + RB + N and TH + TI + N, respectively, at 96 hours after treatment application, the highest PAL enzyme activity was recorded in TH + HX + N, TH + RB + N and TH + TI + N treatments, respectively, at a time point of 120 hours after treatment. The highest total phenol content of roots  were measured, respectively,  in TH + RB + N, TH + HX + N and TH + TI + N treatments with values of 125.33, 114.67 and 109.33 mg gallic acid per gram roots. Also, nematode pathogenicity indexes including gall index, number of egg sacs and number of eggs in each egg sac were measured 45 days after the start of the experiment and a significant difference was observed in all treatments compared to the control treatment. The lowest values of pathogenicity indices were recorded in TH + HX + N, TH + RB + N and TH + TI + N treatments, respectively. Systemic resistance in plants can be induced with biotic and abiotic agents. The effects of chemical and microorganisms on plants resistance induction were investigated in many studies. However, effect of these agents on plant parasitic nematodes were considered less than other pathogens. Capability of different Trichoderma isolates on nematodes damage reduction are reported in many different studies. Several biocontrol mechanisms are reported for Trichoderma. As biocontrol ability of an isolate can be different mechanisms consequence. Effect of different chemical such as Hexanoic Acid, Thiamin and Riboflavin on plant disease have been investigated, however, there are little known about the effects of these chemicals on plant parasitic nematodes. The use of these chemicals as an enhancer of plant resistance to pathogens, due to their low risk to humans and the environment has been increasingly welcomed by researchers.
Conclusion
The results showed significant effect of used treatments on the reduction of root-knot nematode damage in tomato plants. These results justify further studies to investigate and identify the mechanisms of these compounds mode of action on increasing host resistance against this pathogen.
Introduction Every year, soli-borne pathogens of beans cause a lot of damage to this crop. Caudex and root rot of beans caused by Macrophomina phaseolina, Rhizoctonia solani, and Fusarium solani are among the most common diseases of this... more
Introduction
Every year, soli-borne pathogens of beans cause a lot of damage to this crop. Caudex and root rot of beans caused by Macrophomina phaseolina, Rhizoctonia solani, and Fusarium solani are among the most common diseases of this plant. Cultivating resistant species and maintaining shifting cultivation are among the most effective methods of controlling this disease Disease caused by Rhizoctonia solani include seedling death and in some cases cause rot of aerial parts. Macrophomina phaseolina is a plant-borne pathogen that has a wide range of hosts and causes extensive damage to farmers around the world each year. This fungus is a polyphage and causes disease in more than 500 different plant species such as soybeans, peas, pines, kiwis, cotton and sesame, peanuts, cotton, sunflower, melon. Fusarium solani f.sp. phaseoli Burk, is a fungus isolated from peas and red beans, it is present in most soils and causes disease on legumes and plants that grow in hot and humid conditions.
Materials and Methods
A factorial experiment in the form of Completely Randomized Design is conducted in order to evaluate the resistance level of beans species to these fungi. The factors consisted of species (five levels, containing Sadri, Shazand, Saleh, Dorsa, and Goli species) and fungi species (8 levels: each of three fungi alone, combined with each other, and a control sample without any fungus). The reaction of beans species was by calculating the severity of disease and evaluating dry and fresh weight of aerial organs and root and height of the bushes. Steps to perform the test: 1- Preparation of seedbed for planting and sowing seeds of bean cultivars 2- Planting seeds and start growing seedlings 3- Inoculation of seedlings 4- Determining the severity of the disease 5- Measuring the height of aerial parts of seedling
Results and Discussion
Plants are equipped with several defense mechanisms to resist the attack of various pathogens. These include pre-existing structural or biochemical defenses that prevent pathogens from invading, or a series of induced structural and biochemical defenses after an attack. In natural ecosystems, most of the existing pathogenic models are the result of long-term evolution of both the host and the pathogen, and there is usually a high genetic diversity between plants and microbial populations. Today, with the widespread cultivation of cultivars with a uniform genetic background, it has led to the increasing development of susceptible strains of pathogens and the occurrence of widespread epidemics of plant diseases. Therefore, there is a great need to produce lasting resistance to pathogens in plants. Rhizoctonia solani, Macrophomina phasolina and Fusarium solani are fungi with widespread global damage to crops. Therefore, strategies to reduce the quantitative and qualitative damage of these fungi should be studied. In this study, it was observed that beans infected with Macrophomina phasolina, the first symptoms after about four weeks, were yellowing of leaves, wilting of the plant and discoloration of root vascular tissue to reddish-black brown. Also, plants infected with Fusarium solani and Rhizoctonia solani turned the root skin brown. With the spread of disease-causing fungi, necrosis of the crown and roots of tissues was observed. In this case, the color of the vessels changed and turned yellow to brown. Restriction of root development, slow growth of plant shoots, symptoms of leaf yellowing and paleness similar to the symptoms of nutrient deficiency and wilting and leaf fall were the obvious symptoms of these diseases. The results of this study showed that Sadri and Darsa cultivars had relative resistance to all three fungi alone, but Sadri cultivar also showed relative resistance to binary combinations of fungi. But none of the cultivars used were resistant to all three fungi. The experimented species reacted differently to the pathogenic fungi. The maximum and minimum severity of the disease was observed in Goli and Sadri species respectively. The maximum height of seedling was observed in Sadri and Shazand species infected with R. solani and M. phaseolina pathogenic fungi and the combination of these two fungi with Shazand. The maximum dry and fresh weight of aerial organs and roots of infected seedlings was observed in Sadri species infected with F. solani fungus.
Conclusion
The research results indicated that Sadri species, with minimum severity of disease and maximum height and fresh and dry weight of aerial organs and root, was the most resistant species to all three fungi solely and combined.
Introduction Weeds are among the worst limiting factors of the crop yield potential. I. purpurea belongs to Convolvulaceae family and is an annual broadleaf vine and a problem weed in many annual and perennial crops. This weed is becoming... more
Introduction
Weeds are among the worst limiting factors of the crop yield potential. I. purpurea belongs to Convolvulaceae family and is an annual broadleaf vine and a problem weed in many annual and perennial crops. This weed is becoming an increasing problem in soybean fields of Mazandaran province, Iran. Seed germination is one of the most important processes for weed success in agricultural ecosystems; because the first step is for a weed to compete in an ecological nich. Understanding the biology and germination pattern and emergence of common weeds in crops is an undeniable necessity in effective weed management systems. This process is regulated by several environmental factors such as light, salinity, pH and soil moisture. Among the factors affecting germination, temperature and light are the most important regulatory environmental factors. Temperature has significant effects on germination characteristics such as onset, rate and rate of germination, therefore it is the most critical factor that determines the success and failure of plant establishment. Salinity and drought are one of the most important environmental stresses that affect germination. Weed phenology is determined by the interaction between plant internal factors and external environmental signals such as temperature, day length and drought; phenological stages and their characteristics are very important for the design and implementation of weed management methods. A better understanding of the germination biology of I. purpurea would facilitate the development of better control strategies for this weed. Also, predict the weed phenological developments are useful research tools for advancing our knowledge of population dynamics or crop and weed competition; in this way, the study of phenology allows accurate estimation of weed competition time and its effect on crop yield. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of temperature, salinity, and drought and to investigate the phenology of this weed based on the growing degree-day.
Materials and Methods
These experiments were conducted in the weed science laboratory of Sari Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources University. The treatments were carried out in a completely randomized design with four replications. The treatments including constant temperature with 8 levels: 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, and 40 °C; salinity stress in 9 levels of control, 0.92, 1.84, 3.68, 7.36, 14.75, 29.5, 35 and 40 (dS m-1 chloride sodium), drought stress in 6 levels of control, -0.2, -0.4, -0.6, -0.8 and -1 MPa. To study the phenology of I. purpurea, a field experiment was accomplished in a randomized complete block design.
Results and Discussion
The results showed that I. purpurea seeds started to germinate at 10 °C and the germination percentage increased with increasing temperature. No germination occurred at 40 oC. To determine the cardinal temperatures beta, segmented and dent-like models were used. The dent-like model was the best model to predict the germination rate. Based on the dent-like model outputs, base, lower limit optimum, upper limit optimum and maximum temperatures of I. purpurea seed germination were 7.39, 23.54, 29.54, and 39.54 °C, respectively. Also, the salinity level of 31.33 dS m-1 causes a 50% reduction in germination percentage. In drought stress, the highest germination percentage (100%) was observed in the control treatment and the lowest germination percentage (97.5%) was observed in -0.4 MPa. In general, six phenological stages were recorded, including emergence, stem elongation, budding, flowering, fruiting, and seed maturation. The results showed that the shortest and longest growth stages of this weed in terms of time are emergence and stem elongation, respectively. It was observed that the I. purpurea is a weed that completes its phenological stages in 168 days by achieving 2378.01 growing degree-day. These results revealed that the best time to control of this weed is before the flowering stage.
Conclusion
Seed germination of this weed is in the temperature range of 10 to 35 °C and it seems that this weed germinates better at warmer temperatures. Chemical methods are among the most common methods in controlling weeds and other invasive species in the country, so the spread of these species in addition to direct effects can increase the use of chemical pesticides on farms and double the negative consequences of these species. Therefore, with full knowledge of the different stages of I. purpurea phenology, it is possible to plan for proper management. From a managerial point of view, the best time to use the herbicide is in the 3-4 leaf stage; however, in case of negligence at this stage, they should be checked before bud production so that its seeds do not enter the seed bank; because the seeds of this plant are considered as causes of pollution in the field.
Introduction Water is the primary carrier for herbicide applications (it usually makes up about 99% of the spray solution) and deliver them to the target weeds that they are intended to control. The quality of water available for... more
Introduction
Water is the primary carrier for herbicide applications (it usually makes up about 99% of the spray solution) and deliver them to the target weeds that they are intended to control. The quality of water available for spraying will depend on the source of the water on the vineyard, eg. dam or channel. Many chemical elements can be dissolved in water but six major ions make up the dissolved material in most water: Calcium (Ca++), Magnesium (Mg++), Sodium (Na+), Sulfate (SO4-), Chloride (Cl-), and Bicarbonate (HCO3-). Hard water becomes “hard” because of the presence of carbonates, sulfates, and chlorides of calcium, magnesium, and iron. Water containing calcium and magnesium can reduce the effectiveness of post-emergence herbicides that are weak acids include glyphosate (Roundup), paraquat (Gramaxone), bentazon (Basagran), clethodim (Envoy), sethoxydim (Poast), nicosulforun (Cruise) and 2,4-D (many products).
Nicosulfuron is a post-emergence sulfonylurea herbicide that act through inhibition of acetolactate synthase (ALS) and controls many difficult-to-manage monocotyledonous weeds at low rates in corn. Also, 2,4-D is a selective herbicide from the group of auxin-like herbicides that act systematically to control broadleaf weeds in cereals. "Mixing herbicides" can be used to reduce the effect of hardness factors in the water carrying herbicides. The purpose of a good mix is to increase the effect of the compound on weeds without damaging the crop. The primary reasons that herbicides are mixed are to improve bioactivity and reduce costs. Therefore, the application of mixing reduces labor costs, the number of crossings across the farm, equipment depreciation, and mechanical damage to the crop and soil. Interactions of two herbicides can occur in three ways: each herbicide has an independent mode of action (additive effect); one herbicide reduces the action of another herbicide (antagonism), and one herbicide increases the presence of another herbicide (synergism). The question is whether the synergistic effects that occur in some conditions in the mixing of two herbicides can be used to reduce the negative effects of hard water on the performance of hard water sensitive herbicides? Therefore, this study was conducted to evaluate the effect of water hardness on the efficacy of nicosulfuron and 2,4-D tank mixing on the control of velvetleaf (Abutilon theophrastis Medicus.).
Materials and Methods
The effect of mixing nicosulfuron (Cruse- OD4%) and 2,4-D amine (U46- SL72%) herbicides on velvetleaf (Abutilon theophrastis Medicus.) weed control in the presence of hard agents carried out as factorial arrangement based on randomized complete block design with three replications at the Research Greenhouse of Ferdowsi University of Mashhad in 2019. The first factor of water hardness applied in four levels including deionized water (non-hard), 0.1 M concentrations of CaCl2, MgCl2, FeCl3 salts (Merck, Darmstadt, Germany). The second factor was mixing nicosulfuron and 2,4-D amine herbicides as 6.25, 12.5, 25, 50 and 100% of the recommended dose. The mixing ratios were (0:100), (25:75), (50:50), (75:25) and (100: 0). In addition, 10 pots were considered as control without spraying.
Velvetleaf seeds were collected from a heavily infested corn fields in Mashhad, Khorasan Razavi province in northeastern part of Iran. To obtain uniform seedlings, seeds were treated by sulfuric acid 98% during 1 min. Seven seeds pre-germinated in petri dishes were transplanted at 1 cm deep in 1 L plastic pots in a mixture of soil, sand and cocopeat (1 : 1 : 1 wt ⁄ wt ⁄ wt) containing all necessary macro- and micronutrients. The pots were kept in a greenhouse at natural daylength and a temperature around 25°C during the day. The pots were sub-irrigated daily. Prior to herbicide application, plants were thinned to five uniformly sized plants per pot.
The herbicide solutions were applied at the 3-4 leaf stage of the weed using a cabinet sprayer equipped with a flat fan nozzle (No.11004) delivering a spray volume of 390 Lha-1. A four-parameter log-logistic model (equation 1) was fitted to the data using the open-source statistical software R 2.6.2 and the drc statistical addition package.
Y=c+[d-c ⁄ 1+exp[b(log x-log e)]] (1)
where Y is the response expressed as percentage of the untreated control, c and d are the responses at very high and very low herbicide rates, respectively, b is the slope of the curve around the point of inflection, and e  is the herbicide rate giving response halfway between d and c (=ED50). If c = 0, then the four-parameter model reduces to the three-parameter model (equation 2), with the lower limit being zero.
Y=d ⁄ 1+exp[b(log x - log e)]             (2)
Results and Discussion
The results showed that the net effects of herbicides were affected by hard water factors such as calcium, magnesium and iron III chloride. Besides, their efficiency in controlling biomass, survival percentage and height of velvetleaf were decreased. The inhibitory effect of hardness factors on herbicide performance was different. Calcium chloride and magnesium chloride had the highest reduction effect on nicosulfuron and 2,4-D amine, respectively. Therefore, to reduce the effect of water hardness factors, two herbicides were evaluated by mixing. The results indicated that the type of effect on herbicide mixing in biomass control of velvetleaf was synergistic, and reduced antagonistic effect of water hardness factors. Equal proportions of both herbicides in reducing the effect of calcium chloride and iron III chlorides, high ratio of nicosulfuron in reducing the effect of magnesium chloride, had the best performance in controlling the biomass of velvetleaf. Therefore, depending on the salts involved in the water hardness of the sprayer tank, changing the mixing ratio of the two herbicides nicosulfuron and 2,4-D amine can be achieved the best performance control of velvetleaf.
Introduction Widespread application of herbicides to control weeds during the past few decades has resulted in serious ecological and environmental problems, such as resistance and shifts in weed populations. Sulfonylurea herbicides are... more
Introduction
Widespread application of herbicides to control weeds during the past few decades has resulted in serious ecological and environmental problems, such as resistance and shifts in weed populations. Sulfonylurea herbicides are acetoacetate synthase inhibitors. These herbicides will be used effectively to control a wide range of grassy and broad leaf weeds. Nicosulfuron is one of the main ALS inhibitors that was registered for corn in Iran. Under certain conditions some sulfonylurea herbicides can persist at phytotoxic concentrations in soils long enough to affect sensitive crops in the following season. There are many factors affecting persistence of herbicides, included soil type, soil organic matter, soil pH, soil temperature and moisture. Bioassay and HPLC methods are the most common methods for determining herbicide residues in soil. HPLC methods is a time-consuming, costly, and expensive. But bioassay method is a simple, fast, and inexpensive that uses sensitive plants to detect low concentrations of residual in the soil. Several bioassay methods for sulfonylurea herbicides have been reported using lentil (Lens culinaris L.), lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.), sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.), corn (Zea mays L.) pea (pisum sativum L.), and lupin (Lupinus angustifolius L.). This study was aimed to understanding the nicosulfuron persistence in soil using HPLC and bioassay methods.
Materials and Methods
In order to study the soil persistence of nicosulfuron using bioassay and HPLC, an experiment was carried out as a factorial arrangement based on completely randomized block design with three replications in Research Field of Ferdowsi University of Mashhad during 2014-2015. Treatments included of the application of organic and bio-fertilizers in four different levels of cow manure (40 t ha-1), vermicompost (10 t ha-1), mycorrhiza (2.5 t ha-1) fertilizers and control as first factor. The second factor was nicosulfuron doses (40 and 80 g a.i ha-1), and the third factor was the application of nicosulfuron with and without of Hydromax adjuvant. The herbicide was applied at four leaf stages using an overhead trolley sprayer equipped with an 8002 flat fan nozzle tip delivering 200 L ha-1 at 2 bar spray pressure. To determine nicosulfuron residue in soil sampling was performed at different periods of 0, 2, 5, 8, 16, 30, 60, 90 days after spraying from 0-15 cm depth of soil. The herbicide residue was determined using HPLC and bioassay methods. Garden cress (Lepidium sativum L.) was the bio-indicator in bioassay method.
Results and Discussion
Results showed by increasing of nicosulfuron dose, it’s soil residue increased, however; nicosulfuron half time (DT50) was not affected. Application of Hydromax decreased nicosulfuron degradation rate (K) and increased its half-life of nicosulfuron. However, the application of organic and biological fertilizers increased degradation rate and decreased its half-life of nicosulfuron. So that the highest nicosulfuron degradation rate was indicated (0.066 and 0.073 μg kg-1 soil) and the lowest DT50 (10.5 and 9.50 days) were indicated in HPLC and bioassay methods respectively, when nicosulfuron applied in the dose of 40 g a.i ha-  + cow manure mixed in soil. Based on the results, significant positive correlation (r2 = 0.97) was observed between HPLC and bioassay methods in degradation rates and half-life of nicosulfuron herbicide. According to bioassay method, garden cress is high sensitive to nicosulfuron residue in soil. Therefore, garden cress especially it’s root bioassay is recommended as an acceptable method for nicosulfuron soil residue detection and can be used as desirable bio-indicator for tracing of nicosulfuron persistence and soil residue. 
Conclusion
The application Hydromax decreased nicosulfuron degradation rate and increased DT50 of nicosulfuron. But organic fertilizers increased nicosulfuron degradation rate and decreased DT50. Based on this sudy results garden cress is desirable bio-indicator for tracing of nicosulfuron persistence in soil.
Introduction Saffron is a vulnerable crop to weed competition because of its short canopy and narrow leaves. So weeds are the major problem in saffron production. Weeds are mainly controlled by hand or mechanically in saffron fields, if... more
Introduction
Saffron is a vulnerable crop to weed competition because of its short canopy and narrow leaves. So weeds are the major problem in saffron production. Weeds are mainly controlled by hand or mechanically in saffron fields, if these traditional methods are effective and environmental friendly but they are expensive and time consuming.These traditional methods are effective and environmental friendly, however they are expensive and time consuming. The number of suitable herbicide for weed control in saffron fields are limited. The importance of herbicide as alternatives method for weed control was recognized long ago. Herbicide treated mulch (HTM) is the combination of physical (mulch) and chemical (herbicide) weed control methods. This experiment was conducted to investigate the possibility of using mulch and herbicide treated mulch (HTM) to increase the efficiency of herbicides in saffron weeds management. The objectives of this study were to compare the effect of herbicides alone and in combination with mulch on weed control and also determine the influence of herbicide placement (on soil surface, under mulch or herbicide-treated mulch) on weed control and phytotoxicity of saffron.
Materials and Methods
Field experiments were conducted during the growing seasons of 2016 and 2017 in Khorasan Razavi, Iran. Two field of 4-year-old saffron that had not received herbicide applications for at least two years in two different climates were chosen. The treatments consist of trifluralin (EC48%) at 1200 g i.a.ha-1, pendimethalin (EC33%) at 1485 g i.a.ha-1 and metribuzin (WP70%) at 525 g i.a.ha-1 were applied in three method: 1) Directly to soil: herbicides were applied before crust crushing directly in soil. 2) Under the mulch: herbicides were sprayed with an electric knapsack sprayer after crust crushing directly in soil, then the soil surface was covered with a layer of wood chips mulch with a depth of 3 cm. 3) Herbicide treated mulch: mulch of wood chips were pretreated with herbicides by placing the mulch on a plastic sheet at the depth of 3 cm above and herbicide was sprayed on top of the mulch and evenly mixed and allowed to dry for 48 hours before applying them to field. The non-treated control with and without mulch and also treatment of hand weeding was included for comparison
Results and Discussion
There was no severe phytotoxicity to saffron after treatments application according to EWRC, slight injuries observed in all plots ranging from 1 (No damage) to 2 (Very little damage including slightly yellowing). Metribuzin herbicide induced more phytotoxicity symptoms on saffron compared to two other herbicides, but it was better to weeds control and increasing saffron yield. Treatment of metribuzin mixed with mulch in both fields after hand weeding were the best treatment to decreasing of weeds dry weight and improvement of yield components of saffron. Treatment of metribuzin mixed with mulch compared with control caused 85% and 87% reduction of weed dry weight in both fields, also this treatment compared with control increased dry weight stigma to 2.5 times and 2 times. It seems that after metribuzin, pendimethalin herbicide has better efficiency for use in saffron fields. Although, treatment of mulch without herbicide, is not prevented weed growth, but had more effective on increasing of saffron yield compared to weedy check, especially in field 1(region of Kashmar). Therefore, the use of mulch in warm and dry areas has better effect on saffron yield improvement. Considering that the cultivation of saffron is carried in semi-arid regions of Iran such as Khorasan, the correct application of plant residues in semi-arid regions can have a direct effect on the amount of organic matter in the soil, which leads to an increase in flower yield. Generally the pre-mixed mulch with herbicide, in addition to improving the herbicide efficiency, increased saffron yield. This results indicate that the proper combination of herbicides with mulch layer as thin as 3 cm can provide acceptable weed control. According to the result, one suggested way to weed management in saffron could be the combination of herbicide (Metribuzin) with mulch.
Introduction One of the most important pests of the tomato plant, which belongs to the order lepidoptera and the family Gelechiidae, is the tomato leaf miner. The tomato leaf miner, scientifically named Tuta absoluta (Meyrick), was first... more
Introduction
One of the most important pests of the tomato plant, which belongs to the order lepidoptera and the family Gelechiidae, is the tomato leaf miner. The tomato leaf miner, scientifically named Tuta absoluta (Meyrick), was first described and reported in Peru in 1917 (EPPO, 2005). After reaching Spain in 2002, the pest spread rapidly to other European and North African countries, and eventually to Middle Eastern countries, including Iran.
Materials and Methods
This study was conducted in a randomized complete block design with 6 treatments (5 insecticide treatments and one control treatment) and with three replications in tomato fields (private farm) of Kermanshah, Markazi and Hormozgan provinces. Each experimental plot consisted of 5 planting rows, each of which was 10 meters long and 5 meters wide (plot dimensions were 50 square meters). The distance between the plots was at least 5 meters. Fertilization and weed control operations were performed according to local customs. Plants were inspected daily and as soon as the economic loss threshold (4 to 5 larvae per plant) was reached, foliar application was performed. For spraying, a back sprayer with a conical nozzle was used after calibration. Sampling was performed one day before spraying and 3, 7, 10 and 14 days after spraying. For this purpose, 10 plants were randomly selected from each plot and two leaflets were taken from each plant from the semi-terminal leaves of the plant, which were transferred to separate nylon bags by mentioning the name of the treatment and repeated.. The percentage of insecticide effect was calculated using Henderson-Tilton formula. The means were compared by Tukey test using Ver 9.1 software (SAS Institute, 2001).
Results
In order to introduce new and effective insecticides to control this pest, the present study was conducted in a randomized complete block design with 6 treatments and 3 replications in tomato fields of three provinces of Hormozgan, Kermanshah and Markazi and the effect of, Tetraniliprole (Vayego SC200) insecticides with two concentrations of 250 and 350 ml / ha Indoxacarb EC 15% at a rate of 250 ml / ha, Flubendiamide WG20% at a rate of 250 gr/ ha Lufenuron + Emamectin benzoateWG 50% 100 gr/ ha on mortality This pest was examined. The results of this study showed that on the 14 days after spraying, Tetraniliprol 350 ml / ha with 73.02 percent efficiency, in Markazi province, with 82.74 percent efficiency, in Kermanshah province, and with 82.17 percent efficiency in Hormozgan province had higher efficiency than other treatments. Therefore, a concentration of 350 ml/ha of the insecticide Tetraniliprol is effective and can be recommended for the control of tomato leaf miner in fields.
Discussion
In a study of the effects of eight insecticides, chloropyrifosmethyl, lambdacy halothrin, imidaclopride, abamectin, chlorfenapyr, emamectinbenzoate and chlorantraniliprole on tomato leaf miner in field conditions were investigated. The results showed that all the insecticides tested had a significant effect on the average insect population and the reduction of the percentage of infection in the tomato field. However, the greatest effect in controlling this insect was obtained with the use of abamectin, chlorfenapyr and chlorantraniliprole (Sallam, 2015). Another study looked at the effects of a number of biocides on the pest. All of the studied toxins caused mortality of T. absoluta larvae, but the effect of Azadirachta indica and Allium sativum extracts as well as Beauveria bassiana was reported to be more than 70%. However, these treatments were statistically significantly different from conventional insecticides and the highest product with marketable value was obtained in Tetraniliprole (Wiego) and Coragen treatments (Shiberu and Getu, 2018). Evaluated the efficacy of 7 insecticides on tomato leaf miner in vitro and showed that the insecticides Spinosad, chlorantraniliprole + Abamectin and Indoxacarb resulted in 100% mortality in all populations. These results were similar to the present study.
Introduction Grape, Vitis vinifera L. is one the most important economic and major global crop. Grape production is aimed at various markets, namely, table grapes for fresh consumption and processed grapes that are dried into raisins or... more
Introduction
Grape, Vitis vinifera L. is one the most important economic and major global crop. Grape production is aimed at various markets, namely, table grapes for fresh consumption and processed grapes that are dried into raisins or pressed for grape juice. The European grapevine moth, Lobesia botrana Denis and Schiffermuller, (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) is one of the major pest of grape in Iran and worldwide. Larvae of the first generation feed on bud clusters and flowers, whereas larvae of the subsequent generations feed exclusively on ripening and ripe berries and causes considerable yield losses. One L. botrana larva is capable of damaging between 2 and 10 berries, depending on the cultivar and the grape phenology. L. botrana is a multivoltine species with three to four generations per year. The focus of the control methods against this pest in our country is the use of insecticides. In Iran, three insecticides azinphos-methyl, diazinon and phosalone (all registered in 1968) were previously registered to control this pest. However, azinphos-methyl and diazinon have been now phased out from the list of authorized pesticides. Therefore, registration of the new active ingredient of insecticides with novel mode of action is very important. Methoxyfenozide is one of the most effective of the non-steroidal ecdysteroid agonist insecticides that has been commercialized and used against Lepidoptera species globally. Its mode of action is based on their capacity to induce a premature and incomplete moulting and susceptible insects die from desiccation and starvation. In addition, methoxyfenozide have a high safety profile against natural enemies of pests. Accordingly, methoxyfenozide is compatible in integrated pest management (IPM) programs. In directions to register new pesticides and diversify the pesticide basket in our country, the current research was done to evaluate the field efficacy of methoxyfenozide (SC24%), in comparison with spinosad (SC24%), Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) and Lufox® (Lufenuron+Fenoxycarb, EC10.5%).
Materials and Methods
The project was performed against the second and third generations, based on a completely randomized design with three replicates in Dizaj Dol (Urmia West Azarbaijan), Khalil Abad (Kashmar, Khorasan Razavi) and Dehnok (Takestan, Qazvin). The efficacy of the treatments was done based on the damaged bunches. To do this, at 3, 7, 14 and 21 days after treatment, the total bunches of each treatments firstly were counted and then the rate of damaged bunches were evaluated. The experimental treatments were: 1) methoxyfenozide (0.5 ml/L); 2) methoxyfenozide (0.75 ml/L); 3) spinosad 4) Lufox; 5) Bt and 6) control. The control treatment was sprayed by water only. Applications were made according to pheromone trap captures of males. In each treatment, 50-90 randomly selected bunches (from five treated plant) were collected and carefully examined for damage caused by L. botrana. Statistical analysis was performed using the SAS software (ver. 9.1). One row was considered as the distance between the experimental units.
Results and Discussion
The combine analysis of variance showed that interaction of treatment×location was significant, meaning that the experimental treatments had different responds in different locations. Accordingly, the data were statistically analyzed based on this. Moreover, the results of the factorial statistical analysis indicated that the effect of generation and the interaction between generation and location were not significant. Thus, in this article only the results of the second generation are provided. The results showed that in all cases, methoxyfenozide has acceptable efficacy at 14 and 21 days of post treatment. Therefore, no notable expectation of methoxyfenozide, in term of efficacy, should be expected until one week after spraying. The observed delayed toxicity of methoxyfenozide is consistence with previous reports and it is due to unique mode of action being moulting hormone agonist which induce premature moulting leading to death. It is necessary to note that there was no statistically significant difference in the efficacy of methoxyfenozide with Spinozad and Lufox during the mentioned period. For example, in Urmia methoxyfenozide (0.75 ml/L) exhibited 78.72% efficacy (at 14 days of post treatment, which was not statistically significant with spinosad (80.63%) and Lufox (81.04%). In conclusion, our results showed that methoxyfenozide exhibited acceptable efficacy against Lobesia botrana, required for registration in Iran. However, since the both methoxyfenozide concentrations (0.75 and 0.5 ml/L) had the same efficiency and considering the low-input of pesticides to the environment, it is recommended to use the application rate of 0.5 ml/L against this pest.
Introduction The ornamental plants are sold according their beauty. Different mite species imposing damages on various ornamental plant parts. At the moment total mite pest species in greenhouse commercial ornamental plant productions in... more
Introduction
The ornamental plants are sold according their beauty. Different mite species imposing damages on various ornamental plant parts. At the moment total mite pest species in greenhouse commercial ornamental plant productions in the world exceed to 31 species from 15 genera and 6 mite families (Tetranychidae, 7 species, Tenuipalpidae, 4 species, Eriophyoidea, 13 species, Tarsonemidae, 2 species, Acaridae, 5 species) respectively. Among Acarina mites and other arthropods pest species, Tetranychus urticae Koch (Two spotted spider mite) is the most economical pest in the greenhouses in Iran and in the world. This mite pest due to possess shorter time of generation, number of generations through host plant existed, higher daily and total fecundity, higher adaptation range of temperature and humidity during roses plant cultivation time, enhanced this mite to become the first arthropods receiving higher resistance to different pesticides group under greenhouse conditions. Biological control achievement of this mite pest by rotational natural enemies like Phytoseiulus persimilis A. H. received for few percent only under special circumstances in developing countries. But control major of this mite still depended to pesticides effects and how and when to apply. Economical rose plants generally harvested for two or three years in greenhouse condition while enhancing longer period activities for two spotted spider mite population with constant noticeable damages. Substitution new chemical group of acaricide at short period of time against this mite pest under greenhouses reported effective by concerned researchers under greenhouse conditions. Most pesticides effects in agricultural crops can enter and kill the mite as stomach or contact poisons and can classified them into organic and inorganic pesticides. Inorganic pesticides do not contain the element of carbon but include arsenic, mercury, zinc, sulfured, boron or fluorine. While botanical pesticides, positives relatively with high LD50 values to mammals, they usually are considered safe to human. Dependency to pesticides application against spider mite population although will not eliminated them in agricultural crop productions, they should not automatically be given the higher priority especially under greenhouses. Tetranychus urticae causes longer period damages and faster resistance to various group of pesticides among cut rose’s pests in the greenhouses in Iran and elsewhere in the world. Spray new acaricidal compounds in rotation, is one of the control measures which to keep out further mite resistance to the acaricidal application.
Materials and Methods
In this concerned, an investigation carried out to evaluate effects of  different doses of flufenzin 20% SC (0.4 and 0.5 ml/lit) and Dayabon-3 (8 and 10 ml/lit doses) a botanical pesticide manufactured in Iran in comparison with effects of 0.75 ml/lit of abamectin, 0.5 ml/lit of hexythiazox 10% EC and etoxazole 10% EC of registered acaricides against T. urticae mobile stages on cut roses in greenhouses of Tehran, Mahalat and Esfahan regions during period of 2014-2015 respectively. The completely randomized design method with three replications were used. In each replicated, 10 meters roses plants cultivated in the plastic pots were used. Time of treatment’s done at weekly sampling from all roses’ plants in different treatments including controlled treatment and total 200 leaves randomly sampled from various rose plant parts and carried out into polyethylene bag into laboratory to examine mobile stages of spider mite under stereomicroscope. Alive mite stages counted under rose leaf side and when at least 3 active spider mite stages observed with 30% rose leaves infested by mite, different treatments applied at early morning hours. Water spray also used in controlled treatment. Effects of each treatment determined through random 30 leaves collected from bent and vertical shoots and number alive mites were counted under rose leaf side and registered for each treatment. Sampling period followed at one day before treatment and 3, 7, 14 days after treatments sprayed respectively. Raw collected data for each treatment through Aboutte formula converted into mortality%. Analysis of variance on mean of mortality% done with the help of SAS software and those treatment grouped according Duncan multiple range test method.
Results and Discussion
Mite mortality% caused by 0.5ml/l of flufenzin and 10 ml/l of Dayabon-3 found varied from 3rd to 14th days after treatment in Tehran with decreasing effects from 82.89% to 56.35%, 82.64% to 49.65% for both treatments respectively. While effects of these two treatments in Esfahan recorded from 78.61% to 82.93%, and 71.04% to 74.27% with increasing effects against rose spider mite population. Comparing effects of these two treatments in Mahalat however remained almost at constant and mite mortality% fluctuated from 68.8% to 70%, 62.97% to 66% during sampling period respectively.
Conclusion
Spraying higher doses of these two pesticides at lower mean of population and % of mite infested rose leaves and implementing different acaricidal compounds in rotation, will provide higher mite control as well as protect further risk of spider mite resistance to the pesticides in rose greenhouses.
Background and Objectives The two-spotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae Koch is one of the most important pests of soybean fields. This mite is one of the most important and harmful pests of soybeans in hot and dry summers, which... more
Background and Objectives
The two-spotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae Koch is one of the most important pests of soybean fields. This mite is one of the most important and harmful pests of soybeans in hot and dry summers, which often begins to cause damage at the end of the growing stage and the beginning of the reproductive stage of plants. Damaged leaves turn yellow and brown and fall off prematurely. The severity of the damage of this pest is greater when the distance between the plants is short and irrigation is not enough. This mite feed on soybean leaves and cause injury by sucking contents out of leaf cells. In severe infestations, infested leaves will turn yellow to tan, or sometimes bronze-colored, and may drop off plants. Infestations can reduce yield. In most cases, the use of acaricides is the only way to control this pest. The use of new acaricides while avoiding their resistance is important for plant mites control.
Materials and Methods
The present study was conducted in soybean fields of Golestan and Ardabil provinces (Moghan) with 6 treatments and 4 replicates. Treatments were, including clorfenapyr (Payton®) 36% SC  0.5 ml/L (recommended dose), clorfenapyr (Payton®) 36% SC  0.4 ml/L, propargite (Omite®) 57% EC 1 ml/L (recommended dose), bromopropylate (Neuron®) 25% EC 1 ml/L (recommended dose), hexythiazox (Nissorun®) 10%EC 0.75 ml/L (recommended dose) and a control treatment by spraying water. Mean number of mites per leaf was counted one day before and 3, 7, 14, 21 and 28 days after spraying in three floors of plant (bottom, middle and top of plant).The percentage of efficiency was calculated by the Henderson-Tilton method. Statistical analyses were done using SAS software with randomized complete block design in multiple spaces. Data analysis and comparison of means were performed using Tukey test.
Results
The efficacy of studied acaricides was acceptable in all three floors. In Moghan and Glostan province, before spraying on the lower, middle and upper leaves of soybean plants, the number of T. urticae mites counted per leaf in different treatments did not differ significantly. Clorfenapyr (Payton®) was effective after 3 days. The percent mortality of mites when were treated with clorfenapyr (0.5 ml/L) in the upper, lower and middle floors was 83-86% in Ardabil province, although has been reported 72-84% for Payton (0.4 ml/L). While in Golestan province, it has been 100%. The efficacy of the compound was 68-72% (0.4 ml/L) and 78-94% (0.5 ml/L) in Ardabil province (Moghan) and was 100% in Golestan province after 7 days. The knock down effect of this acaricide compared the others was significant. The efficacy of the compound was up to 99% (Ardabil province) and 96% Golestan province after 28 days that indicated the persistence of these acaricides. The results showed that two-spotted spider mite on the lower leaves in both provinces showed more infection. However when used pesticides, it did not show any significant differences. The percentage mortality of mites in Moghan were reported for Payton (0.4 ml/L) (86.32 ± 2.75%, 83.61 ±7.21%), (78.49 ± 4.01%, 82.87 ± 4.58%), (93.52 ± 1.47%, 74.80 ± 9.91%), (95.12 ± 3.90%, 80.39 ± 3.54%) and (99.33 ± 0.67%, 84.82 ± 8.29%) respectively after 3, 7, 14, 21 and 28 days in lower leaves, while the percentage mortality of the spider mites when treated with Payton (0.5 ml/L) after  3, 7, 14, 21 and 28 days  were 100 ± 0%, 100 ± 0 %, 94.94 ± 5.05%, 100 ± 0% and 93.95 ± 4.72% and for Payton (0.5 ml/L) were 100 ± 0%, 100 ± 0%, 88.80 ± 8.57%, 95.02 ± 2.87% and 85.51± 4.92% in lower leaves in Glostan province.
Discussion
It is recommended to use chlorfenapyr acaricide with Payton brand due to high short-term effect (three days after spraying) and duration of action up to 28 days after spraying to control two-spotted spider mite in soybean fields. These compounds showed acceptable efficacy in controlling two-spotted sider mites on soybean fields. In most cases, the application of the two concentrations of the clorfenapyr was not significantly different, but the percent mortality was more when it treated with 0.4 ml/L. The number mites in lower floors of soybean was more than the upper and middle floors, but after the application of this pesticides was not significantly different. Based on these results, we recommend the 0.4 ml/L dose of clorfenapyr (Payton®) for the control of two-spotted spider mite in soybean fields.

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